THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY BAHÇEŞEHİR UNIVERSITY BUILDING SKIN: CORPOREAL EXISTENCE OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE M.S. Thesis AYŞEGÜL SEZEGEN ISTANBUL, 2012 THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY BAHÇEŞEHİR UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES BUILDING SKIN: CORPOREAL EXISTENCE OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE M.S. Thesis AYŞEGÜL SEZEGEN SUPERVISOR: Prof.Dr. Sema SR\JHQLú ISTANBUL, 2012 THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY BAHÇEŞEHİR UNIVERSITY THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE Title of the Master’s Thesis : Building Skin: Corporeal Existence of Architectural Space Name/Last Name of the Student: AYŞEGÜL SEZEGEN Date of Thesis Defense : 10.09.2012 The thesis has been approved by the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tunç Bozbura Director I certify that this thesis meets all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Master of Architecture. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Özen Eyüce Program Coordinator This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that we find it fully adequate in scope, quality and content, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Examining Committee Members: Signatures Thesis Supervisor Prof. Dr. Sema Soygeniş : Member Prof. Dr. Halit Yaşa ERSOY : Member Assist. Prof. Dr. İrem Maro KIRIŞ : ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance and the help of several individuals who in one way or another contributed and extended their valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of this study. First and foremost, I would like to express my appreciation to my advisor Prof. Dr. Sema Soygeniş for valuable guidance and advice. Thanks for her patience and steadfast encouragement to complete this study. Also, thanks to my committee members, Prof.Dr. Halit Yaşa Ersoy and Assist.Prof.Dr. İrem Maro KÕrÕş who offered guidance and support. Special thanks to my friend Jessica Turrin, you always had time to help no matter how busy you were. The most special thanks goes to my parents for their understanding and endless love. Without your support this thesis would not have been possible. SeStember  Ayşegül Sezegen iv ABSTRACT BUILDING SKIN: CORPOREAL EXISTENCE OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE Ayşegül Sezegen Master of Architecture SuSerYisor: Prof.Dr. Sema Soygeniş September 2012, 110 pages The aim of this thesis is to emphasize the importance of architectural tectonics in the sense of building skin design and search for the relationship between the building skin and two building materials ³glass´ anG ³concrete´. Writings on tectonics by Karl B|tticher Gottfried Semper and Kenneth Frampton provide the conceptual framework for the evaluation of the material qualities of building skin and clarify the imSortance of the ³art of construction´ in the Gesign of builGing sNin. The building skin is a transitional element between the interior and the exterior. The skin reflects the design concept of a building that can be perceived from outside. It forms a significant part of our first impression of a building which makes the study of skin increasingly important. The changes in the tectonic features of building skin with respect to the building materials, their application and their reflection on the design of architectural spaces are investigated in this thesis through four different architects from modern and contemporary architectural periods, Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Herzog & de Meuron and Tadao Ando with an emphasis on their use of building materials and approach to the design of building skin. In this context, this study poses an example in emphasizing the importance of investigating the potentials of new building materials and existing ones to improve the design quality of a building skin in architecture. Key Words: Building Skin, Facade, Building Material, Concrete, Glass v gZET MİMARİ MEKA1I1 9AROL8Ş81DA YAPI KAB8ö8 Ayşegül Sezegen MimarlÕN YüNseNlisans DanÕşman: Prof.Dr. Sema Soygeniş Eylül  0 sayfa Bu tez mimari teNtoni÷in, yaSÕ Nabu÷u tasarÕmÕnGaNi |nemini YurgulamaN Ye yaSÕ malzemeleri; ³cam´ Ye ³beton´ ile yaSÕ Nabu÷u arasÕnGaNi ilişNinin araştÕrÕlmasÕnÕ hedeflemektedir. B|tticher Gottfried Semper ve Kenneth )ramSton’un tektonik üzerine çalÕşmalarÕ yaSÕ Nabu÷unun malzemeye GayalÕ niteliNlerini Ge÷erlenGirmeN Ye ³yaSÕ yaSma sanatÕ´ nÕn yaSÕ Nabu÷u tasarÕmÕnGaNi |nemini aç Nlam N için NaYramsal bir çerçeYe oluşturur. YaSÕ Nabu÷u iç Ye GÕş arasÕnGaNi geçiş elemanÕGÕr. Bu kabuk yaSÕnÕn tasarÕm NonseStini yansÕtÕr. YaSÕ Nabu÷u bir binaya ait ilk izlenimin |nemli bir NÕsmÕnÕ oluşturGu÷u için Nabu÷un incelenmesi |nem NazanmaNtaGÕr. Bu tezGe bina Nabu÷unun yaSÕ malzemeleriyle ba÷lantÕlÕ tektonik |zelliNlerinGeNi Ge÷işimler bunlarÕn uygulamalarÕ Ye imari meNan tasarÕmÕna yansÕmalarÕ moGern Ye ça÷Gaş G|nemin G|rt mimarÕ Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Herzog & de Meuron ve Tadao Ando µnun ceShe malzemelerini NullanÕmÕ Ye yaSÕ Nabu÷u tasarÕmÕna yaNlaşÕmlarÕ üzerinGen incelenmiştir. Bu ba÷lamGa bu çalÕşma mimariGe yaSÕ Nabu÷u tasarÕmÕ için yeni yaSÕ malzemelerinin Ye Yar olan malzemelerin potansiyellerinin araştÕrÕlmasÕnÕn |nemini ortaya NoymayÕ amaçlayan bir çalÕşma |rne÷i oluşturmaNtaGÕr. Anahtar Kelimeler: YaSÕ Kabu÷u &eShe YaSÕ Malzemesi Beton &am vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................ ................................ .............................. vii i LIST OF FI GURES ................................ ................................ ............................. ix 1. INTRODUCTION ................................ ................................ .............................. 1 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................ ................................ ........ 1 1.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ................................ ................................ ........... 1 1.3 METHOD OF THE STUDY ................................ ................................ ...... 4 2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: THE TECTONIC ASPECT OF ARCHITECTURE ................................ ................................ ............................ 5 2.1 THE NOTION OF TECTONIC ................................ ................................ 5  .ARL BgTTI&HER¶S THE2RIES 2N TE&T2NI&S ........................ 7  G2TT)RIE' SE03ER¶S )2UR ELE0ENTS 2) AR&HITE&TURE8 2.4. .ENNETH )RA0T2N¶S STU'IES IN TE&T2NI& &ULTURE ..... 18 3. BUILDING SKIN AS AN ARCHITECTURAL ELEME NT ..................... 22 3.1 BUIL DING SKIN ± PRIMITIVE TO CONTEMPORARY ................. 23 3.1.1 Building skin - the wall ................................ ................................ . 2 4 3.1.2 Building skin - structure ................................ ............................... 27 3.1.3 Building skin - expression ................................ ............................. 32 4. BUILDING SKIN - MATERIAL S «««««««« .«««««41 4.1 GLASS AS A BUILDING MATERIAL ................................ ................. 43 4.1.1 History of glass as a building material ................................ ....... 44 4.1.2 Properties of glass ................................ ................................ ........ 49 4.1.3 Types of glass products ................................ ................................ 50 4.1.3.1 Basic types of commercial gl ass today ........................... 50 4.1.3.2 Basic types of glass according to production methods .. 51 4.1.3.3 Basic types of special glass ................................ ............... 53 4.1.4 Processing of glass - surface treatments ................................ ...... 56 4.2 CONCRETE AS A B UILDING MATERIAL ................................ ....... 57 4.2.1 History of concrete as a building ma terial ................................ . 57 4.2.2 Properties of concrete ................................ ................................ .. 62 4.1.3 Types of concrete products ................................ ........................... 63 vii 4.1.4 Processing of concrete - surface treatments ................................ 63 5. BUILDING SKIN IN MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE ................................ ................................ ........................... 71  0IES VAN 'ER R2HE¶S A33R2A&H T2 'ESIGN 2) BUIL'ING SKIN ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 72  GODVV DV D EXLOGLQJ VNLQ LQ 0LHV YDQ GHU RRKH¶V DUFKLWHFWXUH 74 5.1.2 Case Stu dy- Seagram Building ................................ ................... 75 5.2 HERZ2G 'E 0EUR2N¶S A33R2A&H T2 'ESIGN 2) BUILDING SKIN ................................ ................................ ........................ 78  GODVV DV D EXLOGLQJ VNLQ LQ HHU]RJ GH 0HXURQ¶V DUFKLWHFWXUH79 5.2.2 Case Study - Prada Aoyama Ep icenter ................................ ....... 80 5.3 LE CORBUSIE R¶S A33R2A&H T2 'ESIGN 2) BUIL'ING S.IN83  &RQFUHWH DV D EXLOGLQJ VNLQ LQ LH &RUEXVLHU¶V DUFKLWHFWXUH .... 84 5.3.2 Case Study - Carpenter Center for Visual Arts ......................... 85  TA'A2 AN'2¶S A33R2A&H T2 'ESIGN 2) BUIL'ING S.IN . 88  &RQFUHWH DV D EXLOGLQJ VNLQ LQ TDGDR AQGR¶V DUFKLWHFWXUH ...... 91 5.4.2 Case Study - Church of the Ligh t ................................ ................ 92 6. EVALUATION AND CONCLUSION ................................ .......................... 97 REFERENCES ................................ ................................ ................................ . 104 viii L IST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Four elements of architecture, Gottf ried Semper ................................ .......... 10 Table 2.2: Historical and Traditional Materials, BernarG &ache´Digital SemSer´ ...... 16 Table 2.3: Materials of th e Modern and Contempo rar y Architectur e, Bern ar d &ache ´Digital SemSer´ ................................ ................................ ...................... 17 ix L IST OF FI GURES Figu re 2.1: Gr eek Templ e ................................ ................................ ................................ 7 Figu re 2.2: Caribbe an hu t; 1. Hearth, 2.Roof, 3.En closure, 4.Mound ............................. 9 Figu re 2.3: Weaving tech niques assign ed to tex tiles ................................ ..................... 11 Figu re 2. 4 : Weaving tech niques assign ed to tex tiles ................................ ..................... 1 3 Figu re 2.5: Weaving tech niques assign ed to tex tiles ................................ ...................... 14 Figu re 2.6: Ef fective us a ge of deco rative wood en panels ................................ .............. 15 Figu re 3.1: A cave in Vietnam ................................ ................................ ....................... 23 Figu re 3.2: The round te nt of the Turkish tribes ................................ ............................ 24 Figu re 3.3: Tr aditional small openings ................................ ................................ .......... 25 Figu re 3.4: Western Fac a de of Notre Dame de Paris ................................ ..................... 27 Figu re 3.5: The Fa gus Fa ctor y ................................ ................................ ....................... 28 Figu re 3.6: Hallidie Building ................................ ................................ ......................... 29 Figu re 3.7: Lak e Shore Drive Apartments ................................ ................................ ..... 30 Figu re 3.8: The Se a gram Building ................................ ................................ ................. 30 Figu re 3.9: Zuev Worke r s' Club a nd Town Hall by Noi Trotsk y ................................ .. 31 )igure .: E[terior YieZ from &athpGrale Ge Troyes anG &atheGrale Sens ................ 33 Figu re 3.11: Santa Maria Novella and the dome of Florenc e cathedr al ......................... 33 Figu re 3.12: Cathedr al of Santiago de Compos tela and Basilica di Super ga ................. 34 Figu re 3.13: Schlesinger and Ma yer Depa rt ment Store ................................ ................. 35 Figu re 3.14: Bauak ademie ................................ ................................ ............................. 36 Figu re 3.15: The Austrian Post Office Savings Bank in Vienna ................................ ... 37 )igure .: Allen Art Museum AGGition anG H{tel Gu DpSartement Ge la Haute - Garonne ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 38 Figu re 3.17: Ill uminated advertising Tok yo and M useum of Modern Arts, Graz ......... 39 Figu re 3.18: The Youn g Museum and The Cube ................................ ........................... 39 Figu re 4.1: Applications of primitive building materials ................................ ............... 41 Figu re 4.2: P ompeii and Herculan eum ................................ ................................ .......... 45 Figu re 4.3: The crown gl ass production ................................ ................................ ......... 46 Figu re 4.4: The production of polished plate glass ................................ ........................ 47 x Figu re 4.5: The Cr ystal P alace in En gland ................................ ................................ ..... 47 Figu re 4.6: The float pro cess ................................ ................................ .......................... 52 Figu re 4.7: Shan ghai Oriental Art Center ’s laminateG sNin ................................ ........... 53 Figu re 4.8: Backlit glass bricks of Le Prisme in France ................................ ................ 54 Figu re 4.9: Channel glass used in Gardne r 1050 in USA ................................ ............. 55 Figu re 4.10: Silkscreen printed skin of Stadshuis Nieuwe gein in Netherlan d ............... 57 Figu re 4.11: Pantheon in Rome ................................ ................................ ...................... 58 Figu re 4.12: Rue Franklin Apartments b y Au gust e Perret ................................ ............. 59 Figu re 4.13 : Louis Kahn’s -onas SalN Institute at La -olla ................................ ............ 60 Figu re 4.14: Yale Art Ga ll er y ................................ ................................ ........................ 61 Figu re 4.15: The pil grimage chur ch in Neviges ................................ ............................. 61 Figu re 4.16: Wire reinfor cements plac ed befo re th e pouring of con crete ..................... 63 Figu re 4.17: A pr ec ast co ncrete wall ed in construc tion ................................ ................. 64 Figu re 4.18: A mode rn block plant in operation an d its application in site ................... 65 Figu re 4.19: Autoclaved aerat ed conc rete block with a sawn surfa ce ........................... 65 Figu re 4.11: Pantheon in Rome ................................ ................................ ..................... 58 Figu re 4.12: Rue Franklin Apartments b y Au gust e Perret ................................ ............. 59 Figu re 4.13 : Louis Kahn’s -onas SalN Institute at La -olla ................................ ............ 60 Figu re 4.14: Yale Art Ga ll er y ................................ ................................ ........................ 61 Figu re 4.15: The pil grimage chur ch in Neviges ................................ ............................. 61 Figu re 4.16: Wire reinfor cements plac ed befo re th e pouring of con crete ..................... 63 Figu re 4.17: A pr ec ast co ncrete wall ed in construc tion ................................ ................. 64 Figu re 4.18: A mode rn block plant in operation an d its application in site ................... 65 Figu re 4.19: Autoclaved aerat ed conc rete block with a sawn surfa ce ........................... 65 Figu re 4.20: White, trans lucent alabaste r is cast i n beige glass fiber - reinfo r ced, concret e in the skin of the Louis Vuitton fla gship store in Ginz a, Tok yo ...................... 66 Figu re 4.21: Differ ent reinforcin g s ystems ................................ ................................ .... 67 Figu re 4.22: Developm e nt of a tex tile reinforced concret e fa cad e, RW TH University, Aach en ................................ ................................ ................................ . 68 Figu re 4.23: Sand blasted concret e ................................ ................................ ................ 69 Figu re 4.24: Pfaffenholz Sports Centre ................................ ................................ .......... 69 Figu re 5.1: Ex terior view of Sea gram Building ................................ ............................. 76 xi Figu re 5.1: Ex terior view of Sea gram Building ................................ ............................. 76 Figu re 5.2: Relationship between the skin and stru cture ................................ ............... 7 7 )igure .: ³SNin anG bone´ architecture of a nomaGic tent anG the Seagram Building 77 Figu re 5.4: A view of Prada Ao yama Epicenter in the district of Omot esand o ............. 80 Figu re 5.5: Model phot os and drawings of th e Prada Ao yama Epicenter ..................... 81 Figu re 5.6: The grill for the gl ass skin ................................ ................................ ............ 82 Figu re 5. 7 : Prad a Ao yam a Epicente r ................................ ................................ ............. 82 Figu re 5.8: Le Corbusier - cinq pointes d'un e Architecture Nouvelle ........................... 84 Figu re 5.9: Concr ete skin of Ronchamp Chapel ................................ ............................ 85 Figu re 5.10: Gener al view of Carpente r Center fo r the Visual Arts .............................. 86 F igu re 5.11: The fac ade of the Carpente r Center ................................ ........................... 87 Figu re 5.12: Carp enter C enter facad e drawing ................................ .............................. 87 Figu re 5.13: Ex terior view of the cent er and th e ex posed concrete sur fac e .................. 88 Figu re 5.14: Ex posed co ncrete wa ll s in Church of the Water in Yufutsu an d Chichu Art Museum ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 90 Figu re 5.15: Site plan of the Church of the Light ................................ .......................... 92 Figu re 5.16: Inte rior and ex terior view of Church of the Light ................................ ..... 93 F igu re 5.17: The cross cu t in the ex posed concrete skin ................................ ................ 94 Figu re 5.18: Op enings on the ex posed concret e skin ................................ ..................... 9 5 Figu re 5.19: Top view drawings of the ch apel ................................ ................................ 9 5 Figu re 5.20: Section dr a wing of th e chap el ................................ ................................ ... 96 Figu re 5.21: Ph ysical mo del phot os of the Church of the Light ................................ .... 96 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT Advancements in construction techniques, along with the usage of new technologies have allowed architects to design more effective building skin. New material applications and reinterpretation of existing ones have also been closely related to the evolution of building skin design. Understanding the design process, the role of building materials, and significance of building skin have become an extensive field of research in the context of the twenty- first century. Through this thesis, the development of ³builGing sNin´ as a notion in historic anG moGern Sractice Zill be inYestigateG specifically through two different building materials glass and concrete to evaluate the meaning and materiality of building skin and its role in the design of buildings. 1.2 THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY Investigating the development of the building elements that have been formed through various techniques in history of architecture opens new ways in design arena. In this process, the role of each building element and the changing material usage in combination of the building elements are essential fields of research. Since the primitive times, there has been an innate requirement for space to protect human beings from the threats of nature. Primitive architecture, based on the human/nature relationship, has made a great progress with the aid of developing factors, such as the development of different materials, their use and application techniques. From the times that materials take part in the installation of a space as it appears in nature to toGay’s conceSt the Yariety of the Sossibilities is really imSortant Zhich includes the substance of the material as well as the technique of how it is used. Together the terms ³techniTue´ anG ³material´ create the term ³tectonic´ ±an important field of study to understand the substance of building skin design. 2 In this regarG a Giscussion about the meaning of the term ³tectonic´ in architectural literature requires att ention. Writings on tectonic by Kenneth Frampt o n, Gottfried Semper, and Karl B|tticher Zill provide the conceptual framewo rk to evaluate the material qualit y of building skin in this stud y. Kenneth Frampt on reinter preted ar chitectur e of the past i n his booN ³StuGies in Tectonic Cult ure: The Poetics of Const ruction in nineteenth and twe ntie th Centur y Architecture´ 1995). H e investigated the work of modern architects accordin g to material usa ge inst ead of classifying them b y their st ylistic appro ach as previousl y done . As Mallgrave ex plains, Frampt on was interested in ³architecture’s tangible materiality which must be GistinguisheG from cruGer efforts at artistic materialism´ (Mall grave 1996) . He stron gl y be lieves that te ctonics have an important influ ence on the developm ent of the architectural forms. Investigating his studies on tecto nic cult ure is important in ord er to understand the origins of t ectonics in terms of building materials and const ruction techniq ues. Nineteenth centur y Ger man theorist and ar chitect Gottfried Semper, classified the primar y elements of a primordial dwelling based on a Caribbean hut that he saw in the Great E[hibition of  in his booN titleG ³)our Elements of Architecture´ as the earthwork, the hearth, t he framework / roof, t he lightw eight enclosing m embrane (Fr ampt on 1995). Th ro ugh th ese four element s Semper was abl e to identify t he ³enclosure´. The term ³enclosure´ gains its architectural meaning by creating a sSace isolated from the outside elements, defining the hearth of the en closure b y surrounding it, and separating the interior space from ex terior. Dependin g on the classification , Semper assigns differ e nt techniques to each element or motive. Thr ough acts of stringing, binding, covering, prote cting, or isol ating, tex tile art is a ssigned t o define the enclosure (Semper 1989) Semper is focused on al lowing the material to t r ansform itself into a dressing, which follows his theor y of progressing from simple enclosure to compl ex ones. Not onl y Gottfried Sem per but other architects are also conce rned about the structu re, cladding, skin and dressing. I n his essay ³PrinciSles of &laGGing´ Zell - kn own ar chitect 3 Adolf Loos, with the authorit y of Gottfried Semper, claimed that the first task of architectu re was claddin g. He ( Loos 1898 , p.37 ) s tates that; “The architect’s general task is to provide a warm and livable space. Carpets are warm and livable. He decides for his reason to spread out one carpet on the floor and to hang up four to form the four walls. But you cannot build a house out of carpets. Both the carpet on the floor and tapestry on the wall require a structural frame to hold them in the correct place. To invent this frame is the architect’s second task. This is the correct and logical path to be followed in architecture. It was in this sequence that mankind learned how to build. In the beginning was cladding. Man sought shelter from inclement weather and protection and warmth while he slept. He sought to cover himself. The covering is the oldest architectural detail. Originally it was made out of animal skin or textile products.” Cladding was theref ore the first architectural act, the first detail and needed to be considered befo re th e ch oice of the stru ctural ele ments of the building. The importanc e of building skin design in architecture is noted by m an y archi te cts as it is also cle arl y stat ed by Adolf Loos. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the importance of architectur al te c tonics in the sense of building skin and search fo r the design possibilities of the skin with the materials ³glass´ anG ³concrete´ . Architects Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Herz og& de Meuron and Tadao Ando will be con sidered as ke y refer enc es for a stron g understandin g of modern and contempora r y applications of building skin. Works of Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier will hig hlight the twe ntieth centur y architectu re and their ap proach to building skin. Possibilities for building skin design increas ed with the devel opment of new mate rials and advanced te chnologies during t he first half of the tw entiet h centur y. In ord er to understand the meanin g of the building sNin in toGay’s conte[t, it is important to anal yz e the works of cont empora r y architects Herz og & de Meuron and Tadao Ando . Their influential work and var ying interp retations of building skin dese rve to be investigated throu ghout this thesis. 4 The skin is a very significant element of the building becaus e it forms a large pa rt of our first impression. Defining the boundaries of pers onal properties, the building skin i s the first thing that reflects th e design con cept from outside. We cannot imagine a building without its skin. The building skin is a transitional element between the int erior and the ex terior. These mak e th e stud y of the building skin increasin gl y impo rt ant. In this contex t, the chan ges in the tectonic featur es of building skin with developing te chniques and applications , their refle ction on the design of architectu ral sp aces will be investigated in this th esis through four different architects from moder n and contemporar y ar chitectur al periods with their ap proach to the design of building skin with two materials; glass and concr ete. 1.1 THE METHOD OF THE STUDY The rese ar ch method for this thesis is grounded in ex tensive literature reviews and case studies that investigat e both the historical and contemporar y fra mework of building skin design. Foll owing a linea r traje ctor y, from theor y, histor y, t o practice, the first chapter la ys th e foundation b y defining the problem stat ement, s cope, and method of this th esis. The second chapte r set s the theoretical unders tanding of architectural tectonics by e[Sloring Ney ZorGs such as ³sNin´ ³claGGing´ anG ³facaGe´ as GefineG by Yarious architects incluGing Karl B|tticher GottfrieG S emper, and Kenn eth Frampt on. The third ch a pter investigates th e evolution of building skin in its most critical time periods, from primitive to contemporar y. Th e fourth chapte r reinfo rces the importance of mate rial selection and application during the process of building skin design, spe cificall y with glass and concr ete . Last, the stud y conclud es with four modern and cont e mporar y case studies const ructed primarily of glass and concrete, these includ e: the Sea gram Building, the Carpenter Center for Visual Arts, the Church of the Light and the Prada Ao ya ma Epicenter designed b y worldl y accl aimed ar chitects Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Herz o g & de Meuron, and Tad ao Ando, respectivel y. Investigating the influenc e of these particular building skin designs in detail will stren gthen the go al of this the sis. 5 2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: THE TECTONIC ASPECT OF ARCHITECTURE 2.1 THE NOTION OF TECTONICS The term ³tectonics´ in architecture has a great relationshiS Zith the e[Slanation of detail and structural s yst em that are related to materials and production technolo gies. Inte ra ctions betwe en s ymbolism in art, new mat erials and const ruction te chniques have been amon g the most considerable points of architectu re. Tr ying to associate the corpore al existence of th e building and knowled ge of art gen e rated a focu s on tectonics in different concepts of architectur e. In this sense, it is important to know what tectonic means in ord er to unders tand the corpor ealit y of architectur al spac e in term s of building skin. Porph yrios ( 2002, p . 136 ) states that; "First, the finite nature and formal properties of constructional materials be those timber, brick, stone, steel, etc. Second, the procedures of jointing, which is the way that elements of construction are put together. Third, the visual statics of form, that is the way by which the eye is satisfied about stability, unity and balance and their variations or opposites." This statement depicts that ex periencing a building is not onl y about const ruction, it also includes the idea of tectonics and its conc e pt ion that is used in the application. Creation of beaut y in architectu re is both about aesthetic concerns and technical comprehension that me et with const ructional requirements. As an art of const ruction based on materials rathe r than structural fo rm, t e ctonics ref ers to the material effect on architectu ral space. It is a notion in an architectur al area that is related to such terms as; ³techne” , technique, const ruction, structure an d ever ything belongin g to an ar chitec tural work. To have a compl ete idea about te ct onics and its concept, it is necess ar y t o comprehend the ZorGs ³techne´ anG ³tecton´. 6 S tating the meanin g of techne, its et ymol o gical meaning requires a fla shback to the Greeks. Th e Greeks do not differentiate betwee n artist and craftsman; the y us ed the same term ³techne´ for both art anG craft. Artist anG craftsman Zere SeoSle Zho haG a techne and knew pra cticing it. Techne does not simpl y refe r to ex pertise in practical work; it also introGuces a NinG of NnoZleGge anG man’s intelligence that had been integr ated into pra ctice with different m etho ds and flexibility (Ball ant yn e 2001). It is clear from the statement of Porph yrios that ³techne´ refers to either art or craft Zhich has cam e into being b y t he intelligen ce and creativeness of a person usin g resoning to arriYe at conclusions. That Serson is a builGer Zhich refers to a GreeN ZorG ³tecton´. LooNing through etymologic meaning of ³tectonics´ it GeriYes from the term ³tecton´ inGicating carSenter or builGer. As a notion ³tectonics´ reSresents the co mposition of technique with art and co nstruction with poetr y ( LeC u ye r 2001) . As it is clear from all th ese ex pressions, tectonic refe rs to an activit y of compounding building elements to design the whole and giving a form to it. It is nec essa r y to clarif y the design idea and te cto nic aspect of each eleme nt during this activity. A composition of differ ent elements requires consideration of their structural and mat erial nature. Understandin g structur al principals of the elemen ts and the material op por tunities bring creativit y in architectura l design. In this sense it is time to remember Steven Holl ’s statement in the enGorsement Sart of Kenneth )ramSton’s (1995, ba c kcover) book St udies in Tectonic Culture that; "The material, detail and structure o f a building are an absol ute condition. Architecture 's potential is to deliver authentic me anings in what we see touch anG smell the tectonic is ultimately central to Zhat Ze feel...´ Since the notion ³tectonic´ is strongly relateG to architecture in term s of building elements and their mate riality, man y ar chitects and theorists have form ed their own standpoints about tectonics. In this part of the stu d y, inspiring theo ries an d thoughts on tectonic asSect of Karl B|tticher Kenneth )ramSton anG GottfrieG Semper will be discussed in order to get an idea of the conc ept of building skin in terms of corpore alit y of architectural spa ce. 7 2.2 .ARL BgTTI&HERµS THE2RIES 2N TE&T2NI&S Karl B|tticher is a German architectural theoretician anG archaeologist Zho Zrote about tectonics in his maste rpiece, Die Tektonik der Hellenes (Th e Tectonics of t he Hell en es), between 1843 and 1852. He described s ymbolism and t ectonic/st ructura l concerns of Greek Architecture in his book. He accomm odat e G Karl OtfrieG Müller’s Gefinition of tectonics Zhich Zas the first clear Gefinition of the term. In Müller’s HanGbuch der Archaolo gie der Kunst (Handbook of th e Arche olog y of Art), published in 1830, he const rue G the tectonics as combination of Sractical entities anG art ³such as utensils vases, dwellin gs and me eting pla ces of men, which surel y form and devel op on the one hand due to their application and on the other due to their conformit y to sentiments and notions of art. We call this string of mixed activities tectonic; their peak is architectu re, which most l y thro u gh ne cessit y rises high and can be a powe rful repr esen tation of the GeeSest feelings.´ ( Fr ampt on 199 , p.4 ). A GoSting the Gefinition of tectonics by Müller B|tticher assembles NnoZleGge of structure from the Gothic’s arcuateG builGing s ystems and repr esentational ornaments form the Greeks. Figure 2.1: Greek Temple Source: http :// wal lp anelling.c o . uk [ acce ssed Mar ch 5, 201 2] BaseG on this iGeology B|tticher GiYiGeG architecture into ³Kernform´ core- fo rm) and ³Kunstform´ art- form) (Schwarz er 1993 ). Differ entiating between the co nstructive and the decor ative elem ent, he meant to sa y that ³Kernform´ is the form of an element Zhich is a mechanically anG structurally necessary comSonent. The ³Kunstform´ in contrast, ref ers to functionall y clarif ying ch ara ct eristics that were not only belon ged to t he elements, but also to the relationship betw een the elements. M all gr ave (2006, 8 p.531) , in his bo oN ³Architectural Theory ´interSrets B|tticher’s theory anG states that ³His Gistinction betZeen a ³core- f m´ also ZorN- form; abstr actl y, act ual structural ZorN to be SerformeG anG the ³art- form´ its symbolic or artistic reSresentation became a corn erstone of Greek t ectonic th eor y, and gave rise to an abundance of theorizing on the application of these conc epts to new materials and technol ogies .´ B|tticher’s theory of tectonics is about unGerstanGing hoZ single elements form the parts of a harmonious whole. Acco rding to him, investigating the role of each building element in a structural sys tem and spatial organization is necessar y to understand the tec tonic char acte ristic of a building. Also, static and material studies on the building end up with the differ ent for ms of building elements (Frampt on 1995 . B|tticher’s theory introducing th e distinction between ³K ernfo rm ´ and ³Kunstfo rm ,´ mad e it possible to conceive st yle as a pro gr ess with the agen c y of new technolo gies and mat erials. In this Soint of YieZ rereaGing of B|tticher’s theories is imSortant in orGer to create Sotential visions for contemporar y architectu re.  G2TT)RIE' SE03ER¶S )2UR ELE0ENTS OF ARCHITECTURE T heoretical works of a German ar chitect and th eorist Gottfried Semper is important when addressing the question of the architect ural role of a building skin and its corpore alit y. Und erstanding the lan gua ge of the building skin has a l ong histor y, since its consideration in the contex t of material, materialit y and theor y of dressing by Gottfried Semper in the mid - nineteenth cen tur y . From primitive materials to contemporar y ones, his theories provide a stron g understandin g of th e histori cal origins, in describing the co rpore al existence of architectu ral spac e in terms of building skin. To conceive the theories of Semper, one needs to ref er ba ck to 1840s. Und er the influence of technical developm ent s in that period of time, Semper tried to form his architectur al theor y. In the l ectures that he had given in Dresden Academ y, he talked about ³SrimorGial forms´ in architecture Gefining the ³enclosure´ anG the ³roof´ then he aGGeG ³hearth´ to the list. Later on he summarizeG his theory in the fifth chapter of ³The )our Elements of Architecture  ´. In the first chapter of the book, he stated that, Greek civilization was not spont aneous, rather it was influenc e d by ex terior 9 motives and borrowed cult ural ideas from oth er civilizations referr in g to Laugier’s SrimitiYe hut anG 4uatremere’s cabin. These influences shap ed the material selection and const ru ction methods of Greek ar chitectur e. The Caribbe an hut at the Great Ex hibition demons trated the use of the fou r el ements perf ectl y. All of thes e four elements could b e trans f ormed rapidl y and natu ra ll y b y the press ur es of indus trialization (Curl 2000). Semper presented the four elemen ts gener ating architectur al form: the hearth, roof, enclosur e, and mound. The idea of roofing was relat ed to creat ion of a tectonic or structur al framework includin g ta ble and chair making. The idea of mounding was about raising the hea rth above the dampness of the soil, also connected with terracin g, even the masonr y wall . The creation of enclosur e was an activity ab out ZeaYing anG braiGing. :hile Gefining the four elements using the term ³elements´ S emper did not mean to refer their material ele ments or forms, but described them as ³motiYes´ or ³iGeas´ as technical oSerations baseG in the aSSlieG arts. In SemSer’ s point of view, the meth od of understandin g the gen er al principles of art form and architectu ral work was about investigating the developm ent of indus trial arts. Differ ent techniques in the process of developm ent might be an initiator to create ne w st yles both in art and ar chitectur e. Each motive took its origin from differ ent crafts (S emper 1989) . Figure 2.2: Caribbean hut; 1. Hearth, 2.Roof, 3.Enclosure, 4.Mound Der Stil, 200 4Source: 2 1 3 4 1 0 Inte rpreting the metho d of anc ient artisans, Semper limited his concern to the concentr ation of thr ee factors which were; the technical appl ication, th e function of object s that was pe rform ed, the featu res of the ma terials used. This appro a ch was call ed ³Sractical aesthetics´ ( H ermann 1984) . While concentrating on these factors Semper clearl y sp ecified th at; ³Material must alZays be subserYient to the iGea it must neYer be the onl y decisive factor for the embodiment of the idea. M aking the idea manifest must not conflict with the mate rial that conditions it, yet it is in no way absol ut el y ne cessa r y that the ph ysical appe ara nce of the mat erial as suc h is an additional coefficient of the art Shenomenon. ´ In his book Style in the Technical and Tectonic Arts, or, Practical Aesthetics (18 60), Semper classified these motives that are at the basis of ar chitectur al cr eation as; tex tiles, ceramics, tectonics (carp entr y) , and ster eotom y (masonr y) and related ea ch motive to different craft. The firs t motiYe Zas ³te[tiles´ Zhich Zas a flexible an d a tough material resistant to tension. The seconG Zas ³ceramics´ a soft Slastic material anG ³carSentry´ Zhich Zas sticNliNe. Lastly he Gealt Zith soliG aggregates resistant to comSression referring to ³masonry´. AGGitionally he GescribeG metal as the fifth class which pro gress ed afte r these four classes b y the aid of the others. (T able 1) (Semper 1989) . Table 2.1: Four elements of architecture, Gottfried Semper FOUR ELEME NTS MATER IA L TECHN IQUE HEAR TH C LAY CERAM IC S ROOF WOOD TECTON IC S ENC LOSUR E FA BR IC S TEXT ILE MOUND STONE STEREOTOMY 1 1 Through thes e classifications, functional, technical and material factors that have influence on the four mo tives wer e investigated. As a consequ ence of repr esenting four motives and the factors, Semper fo cused on the ³enclosure. SemSer (1989, p.103) continued to describe: “According to how different human societies developed under the varied influences of climate, natural surroundings, social relations, and different racial dispositions, the combinations in which the four elements of architecture were arranged also had to change, with some elements becoming more developed while others receded into the background. At the same time the different technical skills of man became organized according these elements: ceramics and afterwards metal works around the hearth, water and masonry works around the mound, carpentry around the roof and its accessories. But what primitive technique evolved from the enclosure? None other than the art of the wall fitter, that is, the weaver of mats and carpets.” Figure 2.3: Weaving techniques assigned to textiles Source: Der Stil, 200 4 Semper advocat ed the importance of tex tiles from the primitive times. He assigned technical sNills to ³te[tiles´ a an element or motiYe ³enclosure´. The alteration of the motiYe into the iGea of ³Gressing´ characterizeG his famous theory. The motiYe that 1 2 S emper deduces first app eared in the primitive braiding of tree bran ches, converted into bast and wicke r weaving, then woven thre ads (Se mper 1989) . In ³Style in the Technical anG Tectonic Arts´ a Sart titleG as ³style as conGitioneG by the treatment of materials´ contains the informatio n that tex tile methods improve the transfo r mation of raw materials into grac eful and strong products with their valuable featur es (S emper 2004). The forms used for binding and fastening, adopta ble surfa ces have the aim of covering, containing, dr essing, enveloping, and so on. This section demons trates the idea of taking the material tr eatm ent to its limits to create an architectural st yle and an important issue to focus on. The earl y actions with pla yin g the limits of materials; threads, spun or twisted ya rn, braiding, seaming, matting, the loop, weaving and the knot are some of the in spiring activities that helped to shape futur e works. S emper de als with the production of primar y motives as ban ds, threads, knots and t heir applications in a more compl ex s ystem as nets, lace and plaited works. At this point it can be said that, accordin g to SemSer ³Nnot´ is an imSortant technical det ail which is emphasized in Joseph RyNZert’s (1983, p.125) essa y : “By a curious use of word-play, Semper foreshadows his later reference to the knot as the essential work of art… when he considers the term Naht: the seam, the joining. It is, he says, an expedient a Nothbehelf for the joining of two planes of similar or dissimilar material. But the very juxtaposition of Noth and Naht suggests the connection. The seam is an analogue and symbol which has archaic roots, for the usage of joining originally separated planes. Here he presents the reader with a primary and most important rule of art in its simplest form: to make a virtue out of a necessity.” 8sage of ³Nnots´ Zhile giYing form to materials such as wood, tex tile and so on is a old technique. It is obvious that this technique takes a stron g part in the developm ent of architectu ral forms fro m past to toda y. Sem per had investigated and questioned architectu ral practice in the process of basic tec hniques to compl ex tex tile knitting in his writings. His final work has an influential effect on the meaning of building skin toda y. Semper fo cuses on the conne ction betwe en form, material and te ch nique in the definitions that he stated and he interpreted the skin/wall that abstracts the notion of 1 3 interior and ex terior spa c e, also has the function of covering, protecting. Fo r this reason, the wall t yp e that eme r ge s from the need of meeting with these pu rposes is not masonr y structure but ³the Nnot´ that comes into being Zith the basic techniTues or ³the te[tiles´ that are formed b y inte r weaving of elements. Se mper was inte rested in the appe aran ce of the te[tile ZorN in architecture to Sresent his most imSortant theory ³Gressing´ Zith t he differ ent techniques (Semper 1989). Lat er on, these tex tile products had required more stable structural s ystem for a support. Transformation of the tex tile products that were use d to define and limit the space in terms of technique and materials had shap ed the meaning of ³builGing sNin´. Figure 2.4: Weaving techniques assigned to textiles Source: Der Stil, 200 4 Even though underst anding the limits and the treatm ent of materials ar e important, inve stigating the reason s for the eme r genc e of differ ent living spac es and material selection ar e other task s of architecture. For all ocating prop erties fro m each othe r, covering floors and prote cting it from cold, sep ara ting interiors, the us e of wickerwo rk, mats and carp ets w ere us ed earlier than masonr y wall s. Wickerwork as an original spac e divider ret ains the impo rtance of its earlier me aning afte r the trans for mation of the wickerwo rk into cla y tile , brick or stone wall s. It becomes a basis for the wall (H vattum 2004). 1 4 Figure 2.5: Weaving techniques assigned to textiles Source: Der Stil, 200 4 At this point it is remarkable to note that the German word wand , meaning wall has a single root with the German word gewand , meaning dress. These two German words Zith common root ³Gress´ Gemonstrate that the Zall is formeG by a ZoYen material. One of the woven mat erials, han ging carpets pr eserve as the origin of wall s that are the borders, sepa rators of sp ace. How ever, chan gin g factors that do no t have an eff ective role in conception of spa ce but rathe r in creation of more secu re, durable and perman ent spaces bec ame nec essar y (Semper 1989) . The need for more solid wall s to negotiate Zith these reTuirements aSSears anG conseTuently the ³textile´ enclosu re becom es a ³dressing´. Later ³surrogate dressings´ taNe Slace of te[tiles such as stucco ZooG anG metal plaques, terr a cott a facings, and alabaste r an d gr anite paneling. AccorGing to SemSer’s theory loaG carrying anG suSSorting Zall elements Go not reflect the original meaning of the Zall. It is the ³Gressing´ that reSresents the motiYe and spatial cha ract er of the true wall (Sempe r 1989) . The reason wh y m aterials other than ca rpet su ch as woo d, metal or ter ra cott a were used becaus e the y were able to last longer or the y were more outst anding. But still, the solid wall s behind them had nothing to do with the creation of space, the y wer e the invisible structural elements used to support the dressing (He rmann 1984) . At this sta ge, a tex tile - like w all pa nels were not to be treateG as GecoratiYe surfaces but ³Gressings´ or ³masNs´. As Mall gr ave (2005) stateG ³Architecture’s Genial anG transcenGs of its real or material basis thus became for SemSer its highest iGeal.´ He continues that SemSer’s iGeas about ³materiality of stone´ 1 5 Goes not mean ³coYering it uS´. But trul y transfo rm ing it and in tegrating it into a ³Sure form ´ Semper finds his Slace in toGay’s architecture Zith his influential theories and his Sractice. :ith the inYestigation of SemSer’s ³theory of Gressing´ BernarG &ache an inGeSenGent architect aSSraiseG his oZn architecture in his article ³Digital SemSer´. W hile working on a pavilion in Archilab con fe rence in Orl eans, he rea liz ed that his ZorN has lots of similarities Zith GottfrieG SemSer’s theory that Zas e[SresseG in Der S till (1863). Be rnard Ca che compares his con ce pt on the pavilion with principles of SemSer’s theory anG claims that affinity to SemSer’s theory is neither be c ause technical arts are efficientl y us ed to create th e ar ch itectura l product, nor it is about invention of new materials to produc e new designs, but bec a use the effe ctive usage of decorative ZooGen Sanels is uniform Zith SemSer’s ³theory of Gressing´. Also his investigations into the generation of sof tware to map key elem en ts of modern topol ogy, like knots and interlacing consists of a contemSorary transSosition of SemSer’s Urmotive or primitive patt ern. Figure 2.6: Effective usage of decorative wooden panels Source: http :// www. ar chilab . o r g/p ub lic/1 9 9 9 /ar tistes/o b j e0 1en. ht ml [ A cc es sed Mar ch 10 , 20 1 2] 1 6 &ache’s interest in SemSer emerges from his ³conscious articulation of technology and history in architecture.´ Toda y, foc using on the structure &ache summarizes SemSer’s theor y in four propositions; 1. Architectur e, as with the other fine arts, finds its fundamental motivation in the technical arts. 2. The four major t echnical arts are: tex tiles, cer amics, tectonics and ster eoto m y. 3. Among thes e four t echnical arts, tex tiles lend man y aspects to the oth er thre e techniques. 4. The knot is the fundame ntal mode of tex tiles, and there fore of architectur e, in as much as this monumental art is subordinated t o the cladding principle (Cac he 1 998). &ache creates a scheme Zhich SroYiGes oYersimSlifieG reaGing of SemSer’s system that was ex plained in the first chapte r of the introdu ction, then he ex presses a brief outline of SemSer’s theory. TaNing SemSer’s methoG to analyze technical arts in terms of two Gifferent asSects ³the general- fo mal´ anG ³the technical- historical´ into consiGeration &ache’s table Gemonstrates abstract SroceGures anG traGitional materials incluGing fabric, cla y, woo d and stone. Each material has its own imperative char act er which can be shaped b y the abstract procedur es of tex tile, cer amics, tectonics and ste re otom y. Table 2.2: Historical and Traditional Materials, BHUQDUG &DFKH´'LJLWDO SHPSHU´ Source: http ://field d esignlab . files. wo r d p r ess. co m/2 0 0 9 /0 7 /digital - se mp er 2 . p d f [ A cc e s sed Mar ch, 1 0 , 201 2 ] 1 7 &reating a relationshiS Zith SemSer’s historical anG traditional schemes of materials, Cache ex pands the meth od and introduces anoth er table which demons tr ates modern and contemporar y mat erials including, metal, concrete, glass, and biolog y and information. Table 2.3: Materials of the Modern and Contemporary Architecture, Bernard &DFKH ´'LJLWDO SHPSHU´ Source : http :// field d esignlab . files. wo r d p r ess. co m/2 0 0 9 /0 7 /digital - se mp er 2 . p d f , [ Acc e ssed Mar c h, 1 0, 20 1 2] 1 8 Throughout t he research that &ache maGe he states that ³The origin of architecture is no longer unique, since it comes from four technical arts, and, we might add, is no longer Greek. We could even say that there are no more origins at all, but instead a composition of several lineages of transposition by which the four abstract procedures constitute themselves by switching from the material to the other.´ ( C ache 1998) . Asking the qu estions ; ³What does it mean today to refer to Gottfried Semper ?...Why would we need to reconnect the end of our iron, concrete and glass century to the history of wood, stone, clay and textiles?.... Do we not run the risk of a new technological determinism, by which the information age, the so-called – ‘third wave,’ would create a second break with the past, definitely negating any historical experience, leaving us with no alternative other than a choice between the dinosaurs and the space shuttle? ´ &ache GeciGeG to ZorN on SemSer’s theories anG introGuceG the ³Digital SemSer´. This cl earl y shows us that it is reall y important to go back to the roots where t here might be some similarities supporting and helping us to develop ar chitecture. Architecture is transforming from, on e material to the othe r, one technique to the oth er, one techn olo g y to the other, being able t o comm and each point of view and following the opportunities of time is essential in order to come with innovative architectural produ cts. 2.4 .ENNETH )RA03T2N¶S ³STU'IES IN TE&T2NI& &ULTURE´ Kenneth Frampt on an importa nt architect, critic, historian with his writings on tectonics and ar chitectural Sractice is one of the theorists Zho reYiYeG ³tectonics´ as a notion in architectu ral statements in the beginning of 1990s . Frampt on published his book call ed ³StuGies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Const ruction in Nineteenth and Twentieth &entury Architecture´ in  anG ³RaSSel A L’orGre: The &ase )or The Tectonic´ which aim to ex plore th e primar y char acte ristics of ar chitectur e in term s of tectonic understandin g. In hi s boo k, )ramSton states that ³:e may claim that the built inYariably comes into existence out of the const antl y evolving interpla y of thre e converging Yectors the toSos the tySos anG the tectonic.´ Frampt on  . ³StuGies in Tectonic &ulture´ section Zill focus on )ramton’s unGerstanGing of tectonics anG his methoG for 1 9 investigating tectonics. He e[Slains his interest on ³tectonics´ Zith this statement ³I have ele cted to address t he issue of tectonic form for a number of reasons , not least of which i s the cu rrent t end enc y to reduce ar chitectu re to sc eno graph y. This reaction arises in resSonse to the uniYersal triumSh of Robert 9enturi’s GecorateG sheG >«@´(Frampt on 1996). Kenneth Fr ampt on anal yz es influential ar chitects and th eir buildings in terms o f const ruction methods an d material us a ge in his book. His studies in tecto nic cult ure are significant for illuminat ing the origins of tectonics in terms of m aterial us age, structu ral principles and methods with the investigation of influential works of ar chitectural histor y. It is a kind of a stud y that th eoreticall y lo oks at the wo rks of the past in relation to construction techniTues. As inGicateG by AGam Erbaugh  in his Master’s Thesis ³The Interaction of Poesis anG TeNne in Tectonics´ )ramSton (1996) inYestigates influential architects Zith their stuGies anG Sresents the notion ³tectonic´ in various ref eren ces, suc h as; “Structural expressivity in relation to Eduard Sekler, tendency towards lightweight/efficient structure as a polarity to the stereotomic or in reference to Gottfried Semper, organic as to the use of material in its strengths in relation to some of Frank Lloyd Wright’s concepts, ordered organization as is expressed in the buildings of Louis I Kahn, tectonics is a basis for integrated design and is therefore capable of incorporating other doctrines, such as avant-garde; as displayed by Mies van der Rohe, the degree to which the usefulness of an artistic product has been achieved as per Adolf Heinrich Borbein, composed as an intelligent integration of the artistic (kunstform) and technical forms (kernform) as described by Karl Botticher.” 8nGerstanGing the meaning of the ³tectonic´ reTuires a thorough inYestigation of theories of various architects throu ghout histor y, just as Kenn e th Frampt on did in his studies. Anal yzin g differ ent ideas helps us to cr ea te differ ent points of view in the field of the stuGy. He taNes iGeas both from Karl B|tticher anG GottfrieG SemSer to create his theories anG his Gefinition of tectonics as ³the Soetics of construction´. TaNing SemSer’s classification into account )ramSton states that SemSer ZoulG GiYiGe building cr afts into two basic con cepts as the tecto nics of the fr ame and the stereotomics of the earthwork. Tectonics of the frame ref ers using li ghtweight, linear co mponents to 2 0 surround a sp atial ma trix and the stereotomics of the earthwo rk refe rs usin g heavyweight elements to c onnect edl y form mass and volum e (Fra mpt on 1995) . Frampt on ex plains these two methods of art of const ruction, at the same t ime he mentions about the existence of thre e different conditions: the technological object, which arises directl y ou t of meeting an inst rumental need; the sceno gr aphic object, which ma y be used equa ll y to all ude to an absen t or hidden element; and the tec tonic object, which appe ars in two modes; ontol ogical and repr esentational tec tonic. In this regard Framt on decla res the togetherness of these tZo moGes Gifferently than SemSer’s distinction. According t o him, from the discerning emer genc e of the notion w ith the Zritings of Karl B|tticher anG GottfrieG SemSer in the miGGle of the nineteenth century the tectonics not onl y refer to a structur al and material valu e but also to poetics of const ruction. (Fr ampt on 1996) Accordin g to him, structure and material t akes an important part in the cr eation of an architectur al spac e and its transfo rmation from technological obMect to tectonic obMect. EYaluating Kenneth )ramSton’s stuGies in terms of understandin g the str ucture in the sense of materials and considering m ethods to ex press the true ess enc e of a building is very important. Investigating lo gics of const ruction, anal yzin g structural elements cl earl y with their details and a well - designed concept would bring bett er ar chitectur al spaces. Researchin g the m eanin g of the te ctonics and re - reaGing of architects’ stuGies on the toSic such as Karl B|tticher GottfrieG SemSer anG Kenneth )ramSton helS us to interSret the tectonics in a more SroGuctiYe Zay. B|tticher GiYiGeG architecture into tZo forms; structural (cor e form) and repr esentatio nal (art form). In his point of view tectonic was a connecting s ytem of all elements related to a building. He focused on the ex pression of the structure and new mat erials in connection with the arts and craft. Semper also desc ribed a separation as stru ctural and s ymbolic in architec ture. He was interested in architectu ral dressing as a skin and focused on the material and construction techniTues. )ramSton’s unGerstanGing of tectonics Zas about demons trating th e significance of the b uilding. Accordin g to him stru ct ural materials and the method for putting them together was important becaus e he under stood tectonic as craft. In light of this information, it is strongl y ne cessar y to investigate the relationship betwe en te ctonic, building materials and elements of t he building. 2 1 C onsidering the building skin as a part of th e building, this stud y wou ld help us to unGerstanG the Gesign oSSortunities of the ³sNin´ anG its role in the corSoreal e[istence of an ar chitectur al space. 2 2 3. EVALUATION: THE ROLE OF THE BUILDING SKIN AS AN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENT 3.1 DEFINITION OF THE BUILDING SKIN People need a spac e as a shelter that covers, provides safet y and pro tection from undesirable conditions since primitive times . These basic requiremen ts make the building skin one of the most vital elements of the building which requires a detailed stud y in the earl y sta ges of design. BuilGing sNin is both seSarating anG linNing element betZeen insiGe anG outsiGe. Its’ functiona l, const ructiona l, formal and environme ntal occupations take an important part in the ar chitectur al design proc ess that requires to be studied ex tensively. Building skin provides protection from outer elements, creates privac y and defines a bo undar y around Sersonal SroSerty. Its’ aesthetic anG cultural function are eTually imSortant. As stateG by C hristian Schittich (2006) ; ³The builGing sNin- an d especiall y the facade - is the calling card of a building and its designer. Set into contex t, it characterizes th e face of a city. 1o ZonGer that it GraZs more attention than any other builGing comSonent.´ ³BuilGing sNin´ as a term Zas useG only for the Yertical element of a builGing in many sources. It was design ate d as the side pres ented to the public. Eventu al l y differ ent ideas on the definition of buil ding skin were develope d. One of them is the presenc e of a horizontal and vertical surfac e el ement of the building as a whole. Essen tiall y, natur al cave in primitive times is an ex ampl e of horizontal and vertical surfa ce of the building as a continuous element. Later, a division between vertical and horizontal element appear ed in the const ruction of the skin. The wall started to be pra cticed as the vertical element and the roof started to be practiced as the horiz ontal element. Recentl y ne w terminologies fo r building skin have been develop ed. Schittich mentions about the ³true sNin´ Zhich is related to the building whe re roof and wall ar e one continuous element without visible transiti on. A thorough stud y of histor y is essential in understanding the Gesign of ³true sNin´ anG the Zall as a sNin anG their aSSlications. The ne[t section Zill 2 3 concentr ate on the building skin and its devel opment in histor y form primitive to contemporar y. 3.2 BUILDING SKIN ± PRIMITIVE TO CONTEMPORARY Starting from the ancient times, people have tried t o find a shelter in natur e. Holes in the ground, caves in rocks, or spaces made b y ver y dense vegetation were used as shelter. The reason for se ekin g shelter in natu re was m ostl y to satisf y th e need for a spa ce suita ble for prote ction an d survival (Herz o g , et al. 2004). Figure 3.1: A cave in Vietnam Source : http ://ep o d . usr a. ed u/ b lo g/2 0 1 1 /01 /title - infinite - cave - in - viet na m - p ho to - 0 1 1 p ho to gr ap he r - ca r s ten - p eter national - geo gr ap hic - mag azines u m mar y - au tho r - mar k - j e . ht ml With the changin g conditions, people have tried t o find differ ent solutions for a sh elt er. Rather than reso rting to nature for sh elt er, fo rms of primitive shelter in ancient times developed b y some nom adic tribes like the Jurts. The round tent as one of the ex ampl es of those forms of shelter evolved among the Turkish tribes and the anci ent Mongolian tribes (Schittich 2006). 2 4 Figure 3.2: The round tent of the Turkish tribes Source : http :// www. t ur kishc ult ur e. o r g/ militar y/te nt s - 1 7 6 . ht m Throughout histor y, architectural improvements h ave coincided with the developm ent in societies. The architect ural st yl es and variations of building skin have al so developed alongsid e, emer gin g buil ding techniqu es and mat erials. From primitive building skin to contemporar y counte rpar ts, this section will focus on the evolution of the building skin that came into p rominenc e as a result of important developm ents in histor y. 3.2.1 BUILDING SKIN ± THE WALL The awar eness of new lo cal building materials an d changes in the lifest yle lead people to sear ch fo r new building m ethods and people have found alt ern atives fo r t heir shelt ers. These methods all owed people to build their own shelters afte r nomadic cult ure evolved to a more sedentar y one. During this building proc ess, roofs and wall s wer e formed and the ex ternal sur fac es of t hese shelte rs be came an important part o f the who le bec ause of the tasks given to the building skin. The building skin started to become thinner than the existing massive stone or earth fac e of the read y - made caves and natur al holes in these human made buildings. The thinner wall s also redevelop eG the meaning of ³insiGe anG outsiGe´ Zhile Gefining interior anG e[terior sSace clearly ( Herz o g, et al. 20 04). One of the most considered themes in architectu re, regarding the building skin is the relationship between window and wall , or more broadl y ± solid and void. Initiall y, wall 2 5 openings on traditional buildings were small e r and their sizes were deter mined most l y by the const ruction te chnique. Not onl y it was difficult to create lar ge wind ow openin gs in a massive stone or sun baked cla y structur e, but it was also a requirement fo r protection and shelte r. As glass was not a com mon building material, creating la r ge openings also equat ed with losing significant quantities of ene r g y, dictating that the opening shoul d be as small as possible (Schittich 2 006) . Figure 3.3: Traditional small openings Source : http :// www. kibris19 7 4 . co m/ gele nek sel - kibris - insaa t ciliginda - tas - t7 5 9 . ht ml Since the beginning of human e[istence ³Zall´ is one of the most essential Sart of buildings and effe cts of different architectur al movements could be easil y traced on the wall s. The cr eation of l ar ge op enings in the wall s was first implement ed in Gothic architectu re. Emer gin g in the first half of the 12th centur y and continuing well into the 16th centur y in Northe rn Europe, Gothic arc hitecture pionee red the method s for cr eating large r openin gs in the st one - fa ced shells of sa cre d buildings. The novel application of stained glass emer ged on the ex pansive windows of scared spac es, creating a m ystic atmosphere for wo rship. Releasing lar ge section s of the ex ternal wall from their load bearing function in ord e r to cr eate lar ge openin gs becam e usual in building design as ³architectural sSace oSeneG toZarGs the light.´ (Sc hitt ch 2006) . After the Indust rial Revolution usage of massive wall co mponent in the design of building skin decre ased in order to get more sunlight into the space . As a result of the developing indus tr y, m aterials such as cast iron, steel, and glass be came widel y 2 6 available. J oseph Pax ton, a ver y import ant ar chitect of the 1 9 t h centur y, designed his buildings considering the functional aspe cts as priorit y in his design. His most influential architectural work, Cr ystal Pala ce, co nstructed fo r the World Fair in London in 1851, is the most memorable ex ampl e among tr anspar ent bui ldings with its transparent building skin made of glass and st eel. Acco rding to J. Mordaunt Crook (1987) , “The Crystal Palace (1851-4) seemed to lie outside the world of architecture, outside even the world of engineering. The criteria by which it might be judged still awaited formulation. In Hitchcock's words, Paxton's scheme "owed its aesthetic qualities to factors hitherto unrecognized — the repetition of units manufactured in series, the functional lace-like patterns of criss-cross trusses, the transparent definition of space, the total elimination of mass and the sense of tensile, almost live, strength as opposed to the solid and gravitational quality of previous masonry architecture." The vocabulary of a machine aesthetic had yet to be developed.” E ver y detail of this pioneering structur e was pro gr ess acc ordin g to the requisites of the given function that all ows a maximum amount of incident sunlight into the space. Scale and span, the cost, prefab rication, and ass embl y time were dict ated b y the circu mst anc es. Its conc e pt refle cted a sense of limitlessness with its trans parenc y and it became a basis for mod er n arc hitectu re (Schittich 2006). In th e middle of the 19 t h centur y, fun ctional and economic needs of the ch angin g wo rld led changes in the fa c a de. The void in urban facad es reach ed to a rea sonable level. Confidence in the realit y of a transparent fac ade came with the presence of necessa r y technolog y. The importa nce of the openin gs bec omes clear er with the st atement of Le Corbusier who is one of the most influential ar chitects of the 20 t h century ³The history of architecture is the history of the ZinGoZ.´ Ho chber g , et al. 2010). The meaning of th e wall and the ratio of the solid and the void has been chan gin g sinc e primitive times. Wall and window blend into each other in the sense of structured op ening. Ex ternal envelope open ed up and the chan ging demands and technologies have shifted building sk in from more massive, solid element to more tra nsparent one. 2 7 3.2.2 BUILDING SKIN- STRUCTURE There is a great shift from massive masonr y const ruction techniTue to toGay’s const ruction techn olo gies in terms of building skin design. From buil ding skin of read ymad e structur es of the primitive times to contemporar y pe riod, skin and structure relationship is an important field of stud y fo r the design of building skin. Gothic architectu re was one of the most consider able ar chitectural pe riods that affect ed the building skin design. It was bas ed on a load tr ansfer ring structure whe r eb y th e wall s were no lon ger load - bea ring. This structural appr oach all owed fo r the creation of large windows on the e x terna l wall s. Greeks and Ro mans also used the colu mn and beam building system to const ruct their buildings and then covered them with stone, brick, and cement. Similarl y, stained glass, which was placed in - betwe en arch es supported by the colum ns of mediev al cathedr als, existed as one of the nameless ex ampl es of the curtain wall s ystem for ages (Hunt, 1958). Figure 3.4: Western Facade of Notre Dame de Paris Sour ce : http ://e n. wikipedia.o r g/ wiki/File:No tr eDa meI . j p g As the 17 t h c entur y gave rise to the Enlightenment, a cult ural movement of intell ectuals in the 18 th centur y Eu rope and America , aimed to reform societ y and advance knowledge and ch an ges in the structu r e of the societies. The 19 t h centu r y took these ideas and evolved into the Indust rial Revolution. The Indust rial Revol ution affe cted alm ost ever y part of hu man life, also architect ure. As a result of developm ents in 2 8 technolog y, ne w building materials and const ruction techniques carried building fac ades to ex traordinar y limits. Befo re the Indust rial Revolution buildings were limited to natural materials like wood, stone, and sun - bak ed cla y. Th e pro gr essive relationship between architecture an d manufacturi ng open ed ex pansive opportunities, making new building t yp es, mate rial s, and techniqu es possible. The ex ternal skin and the load - bearing stru cture were able to be compl etel y s e parate. Developm ents in const ruction technolog y m ade the ste el skeleton availabl e as a reliable const ru ction me thod and this sequentiall y m ade the wider span of windows pos sible on ex ternal wall s. Be ginning in the United States, the developm ent of elevators also all owed iron load - bea ring structures to ex pand in height. Th ese developm en ts were able to incr easin gl y influen ce the independenc e of ex ternal skin from their structural function. A compl ete separation of the ex ternal skin was first seen in industrial buildings. The ex ternal wall s were designed as full y glaz ed openings to achie ve mor e light inside ( Schittich 2006). One of the early e[amSles of ³curtain Zall´ Zas :alter GroSius’ Gesign for The )agus Factor y, betwe en 1911 - 1 919, which has eliminated corner piers and there f ore achieving a full y glaz ed co rner acr oss three floors. Walt er Gropius and Adolf Me ye r mana ged to suspend a cu rtain wall in front of an indus trial hal l as a filigree, tr anspar ent skin that did not have an y load - be aring fun ction. This was meant to demons trate the freedom of the building skin. Figure 3.5: The Fagus Factory Sour ce : http ://en. wikiar q uitectur a. co m/inde x. p hp /File :Fab rica_ far g us_ 2 3 . j p g 2 9 The building assigned as the first pure application of the curtain wall s yste m throughout architectu ral literature was the Hallidie Building, designed b y Willis Jefferson Polk in 1918 in San Francisco . The suspended gl ass wrap s the seven stor y tall building betwe en colum ns spaced approximatel y on e meter apa rt (Brock 2005). Polk was influenced b y natural light and he want ed to facilitate const ruction while produ cin g a co mpl etel y gl ass facad e. The structu ral g rid for the glass fac ade was compos ed of mul lions w ith three vertical subdivisions on each floor. Th e glass skin was carried on a con crete sill and cantilevered out from the upst and beam (Frampt o n 1983). Figure 3.6: Hallidie Building So ur ce : http :/ / wavine ss. wo r d p r ess. co m/2 0 1 0 /1 0 /2 3 /hallidiebuilding/ An influential ar chitect Mies van der Rohe brou ght a dif ferent touch to t he facade with his re - interpr etation of th e curtain wall accordin g t o his own aesthetic with the design of the Chicago Lak e Shore Drive Apartments in 1951. The building highlights another significant cu rtain wall s tructure built after the Hallidie Building ( Schittich 2006). The panels of the fac ade were inserted into th e se conda r y structur e that was sup ported b y th e primar y st eel skeleton of the building. The building fac ade was designed in two different wa ys. The faca de facing the lake is flat and the other facing the land forms a double T - shap e. Both st yl es incorpor ated no stru ctural fun ction into the facad e, rather the sole purpose of the facade design was to stress the vert icality of the building (Cohen 2007) . 3 0 Figure 3.7: Lake Shore Drive Apartments So ur ce : http :/ / www. a maz o n. c o m/ Lud wig - Mies - Ro he - Lo uis - Co hen/d p /3 0 3 4 6 0 73 4 2 /r ef=s r _ 1 _9? s= boo ks&ie= UT F8 &qid=1 33 8 73 0 39 9 &sr =1 - Another e[amSle Mies’ Seagram BuilGing in 1eZ YorN GiG not use mass- produc ed components; inst ead, ex pensive components in bronz e that accentuated the cross section were used. Using th e golden brown colored gl ass panes ± a color pro duced b y i ron oxide and selenium ± result ed with an alm ost opaque volum e ( Schittich,2006) . Figure 3.8: The Seagram Building Source : http ://5 wso fd esign.b lo gsp o t.c o m/2 0 1 2 /0 2 /what - sea gr a m - b uilding.ht ml 3 1 G lass curtain wall buildings spr ead rapidl y aroun d the world until the ear l y 1970s and have become one of th e defining elements of th e Intern ational St yle. A gridded gl ass facad e also bec ame the primar y s ymbol for office buildings as gr eate r att ention was g iven to office design. The smoo th and unifo r m curtain wall was advocated b y th e reproduction of comm e rcial ar chitecture and creative, ele gant fa c ade design soon become monotonous ( Sc hittich 2006) . From the mid - six ties, a new method about glass fixing tech niques emer ged in the US. Fixing ex ternal glazing wall s through the agen c y of silicon and the other techniques pla ye d an efficient rol e in the ch an ge of ar chitectural facades. Th ese stru ctural innovations make it possible for a building shell to act as a s kin b y creating a continuous structure from fac ade to roof. All possible geome tric forms can be enclose d in a s ystem ( Schittich 2006) . Figure 3.9: Zuev Workers' Club and Town Hall by Noi Trotsky Source : http ://en. wikipedia.o r g/ wiki/Co n str uctivist_ar chitec tur e Toda y ar chitecture is no longer restri ct ed b y the load bea ri ng wall . Glass manufacturing technolog y have made a gr eat pro gr ess all owing light to be used more creatively to light interiors and redefine facad es. Developm ents both in the building technologies and availability of new mat erials cha nged the facade design app roach. Th e ex ternal part of a 3 2 building gained anothe r meaning as a result of th ese ch an ges. But a comm on go al that aims to give a building skin a fac e still continues ( Schittich, 2006) . 3.2.3 BUILDING SKIN- EXPRESSION Build ing skin was used solel y to meet with specific functions such as protecting from ex ternal eff ects, defining bound aries and providing privac y until peop le started to decorat e the building skin as the y would also decorate their clot hes. Consequentl y people s tarted to add decoration to their shelters, such as tent, hut, or cave. Patt erned clot hes and painted dec orations on the wall s were first custom s use d to decorate shelters. This application then ex tended to simple homes, then to Greek and Chinese temples, Islamic pala ce s, and mosq ues as frescoes in different cult u res and eras (Schittich 2006) . Frescoed Exterior Walls Source : http ://b o b ho lle y. wo r d p r ess. co m/ Intensified and complicated usage of orn amentation in the 12 t h centur y emerged in the Gothic period. In Gothic architectu re the ex pression of life in Greek orna mentation took a wider ran ge and various suggest ions of nature and resembl ance to man y diffe rent species of veget ation appeared on building fac a des. An ex tensive architectural flor a used to decor ate the ex terior of the chur ches in tha t period (Moore, 2003 ). 3 3 Figure 3.10: E[WHULRU YLHZ IURP &DWKpGUDOH de Troyes and Cathedrale Sens Source : http ://e n . wikipedia.o r g/ wiki/Mar tin_ C ha mbiges Just like all other architectural movements, Gothic movement consum ed itself becaus e of its intensifying and complicated ornamentation usage. With the change of massive anG GecorateG style of Gothic to the cleaner classical lines of the ³Renaissance´ movement emer gin g in the 15 t h centur y, fac ades were s epar ated from the structure and the y sta rted to drape over the front like a new ³cloaN´ in the Renaissance. The reason for this separation was al l for aesthetic purposes. The design of fac ades in the classical architectu re has pla yed an important role in the design proc ess. The pr oportion and division by me ans of architraves, colum ns an d rusticated ashlar stones were th e important factors th at ha d to be tak en into consideration during this pro c ess (Schittich 2006) . Figure 3.11: Santa Maria Novella and the dome of Florence cathedral Source : http :// wkp . mal uke. co m/e n/Histo r y_ o f_ co nstr uctio n# Co nstr uction_in_the_ Re n aiss ance 3 4 During th e Renaissanc e period in the 15 t h century, the ex ternal wall s wer e designed to giYe the effect of an ³e[hibit´. This effect became stronger as humanism that s ymbolizes an intell ectual movement flourished in the Baroque era betw een 17 t h a nd 18 t h centuries. Impressive, artistic means were ref lected b y the facad e. Facades be came the ex pressive fac e of the streets with their deco rations (Herz og , et al. 2004) . Figure 3.12: Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela and Basilica di Superga Source : http ://en. wikipedia.o r g/ wiki/Bar o q ue_ ar chitect ur e A fter the Indust rial Revolution in the 19 th centur y, new const ru ction te chniques and materials were inco rpora ted, first, in En gland and then ex panded to Centr a l Europe and United States. Germ an y widel y ac cepted th e new const ruction techniqu es and materials promot ed by th e Indust rial Revolution and adopted the essence of its architectural design. The influ ence of the Indust rial Revolution on architectur al design advanced rapidl y on the architec tural sta ge. In particul ar, the rationalist ex pression of the stru ctural s ystem and m aterials of the building skin indicated the eme r ge nce of a new architectural aSSroach NnoZn as ³functionalist traGition.´ The guiGing SrinciSle of the functionalist tradition implied a clear ex pression of the structural s ystem and materi als. Practical conce rns such as use, material, and str ucture, also dete rmined the form of a building (Richards 1968) . 3 5 Based on th e functionalist tradition of a clear ou tward ex pression of func tion, another architectu ral appro ach evolved to counteract the dissatisfaction of the archit ects with the historical revivalism in the 19th and earl y 20th centuries. The st atement ³form folloZs function´ b y Ame rican architect Louis Sulliva n in the 1880s, made him known as one of the pioneers of moder n architectu ral design. S ullivan designed the Cars on Pirie S cott Store , originall y known as the Schlesinger & Ma ye r Store and presen tl y known as "Sullivan Center" in Chicago (1899 ±1904). This masterpiece radiate s his design principles by demons trating the cl ear division of the horizontal sections in relation to th e floor slabs. This division makes the const ruction of the load bearing str ucture visible on the fa c aGe Zhich accurately illustrates SulliYan’s Gesign theme that the e[terior of a building must depict its internal structure and fun ction. This design appro ach ex plicitl y reYeals the structure’s relationshiS betZeen interior content anG e[ternal form. One of the builGing’s most innoYatiYe features is its usage of material. The steel- fr ame structur e all owed for ba y - window s, which consequentl y cr eated a great a mount of available light in the building. Also, his ideas about ornam entation wer e summ arized by Schittich (2006, p.12): ³Yet SulliYan is eTually conYinceG of the necessity of ornamentation. He is intent on enriching the building in its details, adding to t he strength of its ex pression. But in doing so, his ornamentation is never superficial: it is alwa ys an inte gral component of the whole .´ Figure 3.13: Schlesinger and Mayer Department Store Source : htt p :// www. gr ea tb uildings. co m/c gi bin/gbi.c gi/Sc hle s_ Me yer _ Sto r e. ht ml/cid_aj 1 85 2 _ b . html 3 6 During the 19 t h centur y, the positive relationship between England and German y influenced res ear chers and architects traveling to both countries to bring new and innovat ive ideas ba ck t o their own countr y. For inst ance, German ar chitect Karl Friedrich Schinkel was ver y impr essed b y the factories aft er traveling to England and back to German y and his observations influenced his design approach. As Aurora Cuito (2003) indicated that: ³His ZorNs can be interSreteG from a 1eo- C lassical and Romantic viewpoint, but in his use of ma terials and const ruction techniques he al so sought an architectu ral reasoning t hat went be yond the s ymbolic and archeolo gical debates in Zhich 1eoclassicism sometimes raYeleG.´ In this conte[t SchinNel’s BauaNaGemie builGing coulG be referreG to as µan announcer of moGern architecture.’ It GeserYeG to be taNen into consiGeration because of its uncomm on usage of red brick and streamlined facad e in its iron fra mes structure (Micale & Dietle 2000). Figure 3.14: Bauakademie Source : http ://d e. wikipedia.o r g/ w/index. p hp ? title= Datei:M_ B auakad e mie_ B er lin_1 8 8 8 .j pg& filetimesta m p =2 0 11 0 32 5 18 0 64 6 3 7 Betwe en 1860 and 1910, a n international architec tural design movement known as the ³Arts anG &rafts MoYement´ emergeG as a reaction against the imSetus to reGuce decorative arts. Its fun damental principles wer e to emphasize the qualities of the materials used and to remain true to mate rial, structure, and function. The building r efle cting the fu ndament al principles of The Arts and Crafts Movement ± in a radical wa y - is Otto :agner’s Gesign for the Austrian P ost Office Savings Bank in Vienna. In the early ’s this Gesign Zas consiGereG raGical in EuroSe because it Zas the first functionall y - inspired mo dern building to demo nstrate the facade as a monum ental element. Aluminum was used decorativel y from the covering of the nails that hold the marble cladding on the wall s The Austrian Post O f fice Savings Bank is another ex ampl e of a stron g modern ar chitectural pr esenc e throu gh the structure of the buil ding skin and the clear ex pression of the materials. Aluminum gains more importan ce than other building materials with its dominan t usage in this building (Gl ynn 2007). Figure 3.15: The Austrian Post Office Savings Bank in Vienna Source : http :// www. gr ea tb uildings. co m/b uildings/P o st_ Of fic e_ Savings_ B ank. ht ml The architectu re of the 1970s aims to give symbo lic meaning to the building skin while refe rrin g back to the histor y. Its impulse in architecture does not pro pose imitating historical buildings. It is about using historical refer enc e as a wa y of an al yzing, and learning. Designing simple "de corated sheds " with rich, compl ex and often sh ocking ornamental flou rishes, an American architect Rob ert Ventu ri (1984) stated that; " I a m for 3 8 richness of meaning rat her than clarity of meaning. I like element s which are hybrid rat her than 'pur e, ' co mpr omising rat her than 'cl ea n,' distort ed rat her tha n 'st r aight for war d,' conventional rat her than 'designed.' " Figure 3.16: AOOHQ AUW 0XVHXP AGGLWLRQ DQG H{WHO GX 'pSDUWHPHQW GH OD HDXWH- Garonne Source : http :// www. ar chitect ur e wee k. co m/cgi - bin/a wima ge? dir=2 00 5 /0 40 6 &ar ticle= d esign_ 1 - 1 . ht ml &ima ge= 1 2 6 5 9 _image _ 1 .j p g Venturi has never ar gued for a return, his aim was never taking architectur e back to the principles of the previous architectural movemen ts. His usage of historical forms was about inte grating it into a wide - ran gin g and in th e end, a contempora r y whole. He also studied symbolism as a significant element of ar chitecture. In one of his interviews he ( htt p:/ /www.archdail y.co m/ 130389/interview - robe rt - venturi - denise - scott - br own - b y - andrea - tamas/ ) states th at; “In ancient Egypt hieroglyphics covered the walls and columns of temples. They were both pictures and communications and it’s been that way ever since. Italian church frescoes were only incidentally great art. They were there to give information to worshippers who couldn’t read. And today’s architecture may communicate via electronics. But although the buildings we design may allude to history, they don’t copy it.” 3 9 Figure 3.17: Illuminated advertising Tokyo and Museum of Modern Arts, Graz Source : http :// www. ar chitonic .co m/ nt sh t/ media - faa d e/7 0 0 0 40 8 In the contempor ar y buildings, the innovative use of const ruction techniques, the manipulation of structura l elements, the ex ploration of color and tex ture of the materials transform the mean ing of ornamentation in toGay’s architecture. 1eZ materials such as bead - blasted met al or tex tured and tinted glass, brick, mol ded sheet meta l, glass panels pierced sc re ens in metal and concr ete and orn amental patt erns used on these materials pla y an impor tant role in the ne w wa y of ornam entation (Burd en 1997). Figure 3.18: The Young Museum and The Cube Source : http :// www. ma kea r c hitect s. co m/# /p r o j ec ts/0 0 12 / 4 0 The application of a builGing’s sNin has shifteG from aSSlieG ornamentation of Sre- modern notions to the removal of ornamentation in the modern pe riod. Th e orn amented skin has reemer ged in postm odern period and to da y building skin design interprets th e use of ornamentation w ith various materials, differ ent architectural app roaches and sophisticated details. 4 1 4. BUILDING SKIN- MATERIALS There are two method s gen erall y used for researchin g the evolution of building materials. One of them is the transmission of existing materials into a new framework and the other is the disc over y of new materials. New technolo gies and new materials open wa y to opportunities in architectur al design. Design of building ski n was usuall y limited to the local availabl e building materials and traditional building cons truction techniques in the past. People usu all y tried to find read y - m ade shelters such as holes in the ground, caves in the rock bec ause the y ne ed for shelter for prote ction in primitive times. Eventuall y people used mate rials as the y appear in natur e witho ut treatm ent. Some of the most comm on primitive building materials could be listed as; natural stone, adob e or mud brick, pise, limew ash, cla y and light timber fr am es. Figure 4.1: Applications of primitive building materials Source : K. Ward - Harvey , 200 9 . Fund a mental B uilding Ma terials. Building skin is a protec tive shell from th e ex ter nal environment for hu man beings. It decl ar es the ph ysical ap pearan ce of buildings, at the same time it is the ex pression of cult ural and historical back ground of the societ y. Building skin envelops architectural space in differ ent forms like dynamic or static, light or heavy, plain or patt erned. The relationship between buil ding skin and mate rials is an important issue to consider during the design of building skin. 4 2 P eople started to give form to the mat erials aft er identif ying th eir ch ar acteristics and discovering their limits. Building materia l is one of the most important tool for architects to make ideas real. It influen ces the design of building skin where the idea becomes real as a tan gib le means of ar chitectural ex pression. One of th e best ex ampl es of giving form to the material could be f ound in Gothic Architecture with the usage of stone. Although stone is known as a massive buil ding mate rial, Gothic arc hitecture paid more att ention on th e ex pression of the stone skin as an enclosur e, as a reflection of th e religious pow er. The y m ana ged t o use stone, thinner and lighter. Great pro gr ess of building materials started after the Indust rial Revolution. The growth of heavy industr y brou ght a flood of new building mat erials fo r building skin such as cast iron, steel, and gla ss (Schittich 2006) . The se developm ents mad e it possible to acc ess various m aterials in differ ent sizes and forms usable for differ e nt functions. Toda y, building mate rialit y is an ex citing and gr owing conc ern in architectural design process. Contemporar y architects are tr ying to use materials in an innovative way. In addition to the indus triall y produced mate rials such as glass, diffe rent t yp es of plastics, metals and con cr ete, the y are also usin g tr aditional materials like ston e and wood usable in different cont ex ts in the des ign of building skin. Using diffe rent te chniques and materials, building skin pla ys an important role in architectur al design. New building materials started to be used in the building skin applications such as pol yureth ane sheeting, corten st eel plates, s tainless steel s trip meshes, coppe r sh eets, domed aluminum discs, translucent gl ass blocks, EFTE sheeting, wood en shingles and solar photovoltaic panels. Investigating the mat erials used in building skin design is an ex tensive field of stud y. It is ess ential to understand the material properties , design potential and their integr ation into the building skin design. Taking this fact int o account, this section will focus on two selected materials; glass and con cret e. Both glass and concr ete have been used att ractivel y as building skin materials from the be ginning of their invention until toda y. Dating back to more than five thous and years, gl ass has been pla yin g an important role in architecture with its various manipulations (Be l l 2006). It is a versatile material with its useful properties that leads architects to be more creative. Conc rete has also been one 4 3 of the most influential building materials from the times of Romans. It is a material that can be design ed in an y form and it is suitable for various su rfa ce tre atm ents. The advanta ges of con crete support innovative building skin designs as it is clearl y unGerstanGable from its GiYerse use in architecture. Glass anG concrete’s uniTue properties and roles in the building design revol utionized architectu re. These unique featur es ar e the reasons wh y the y are s elected to be studied in this thesis. Encoura gin g innovative design and dr amatic statements, these two materials with their pure usa ge or compositions enabled architects to embrace diffe re nt architect ur al movemen ts. Glass as a transpa rent material and conc rete as an opaqu e mate rial has often existed togethe r in buildings. Eventuall y both glass and concret e became materials that architects never give up using in their buildings . It is possible to tran s f orm glass and concret e in terms of its appear ance or structu re throu gh diffe rent tec hniques. The following se ctions of th e stud y will investigate glass and concr ete as building skin materials with their prop erties, typ es and applications in different cas e. 4.1 GLASS AS A BUILDING MATERIAL In contempora r y building skin design, glass is one of the building mat erials that is most l y used. Althou gh it is one of the oldest building materials, its noteworth y pro gr ess in terms of its structure, tex ture, size i s worth investigating. The considera ble diversit y of transpare nt facad e de sign in architectur e supports the developm ent of glass, glass const ructions and produ cts of glass facade. This fact m akes glass as an important building skin material to investigate . Rese arch on the subj ect, the acknowl edgement of the available glass produ cts will open ne w horizons in the design of building skin for architects and designe rs . In this section glass as a building skin material will be investigated in three se ctions; his tor y of glass, glas s as a building material and glass as a building skin material. The first se ction covers the definition of glass, ex presses the milestone of the glass in histor y su ch as its origins and production method in the middle ages and the advanc em e nts after the indus trial revolution. The second par t contains the properties, t ypes and su rfac e tre atm ents of glas s in detail, and the last part is about understandin g the meaning of glass as a building skin material. 4 4 4.1.1 History of glass as a building skin material The term ³glass´ is GeriYeG from a Germanic term ³glaza´ that means ³amber´ ³glare´ or ³shimmer´. It is one of the olGest builGing materials Zhose origin can be GetecteG at least 5.000 ye ars ago. It is a composition of earthe n elements which a re tra nsformed b y fire. Glass is a solidified liquid without cr ystallization, and its components are silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ), calcium oxide (CaO), sodium oxide (Na 2 O), ma gnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminum oxide ( Na 2 O) (He gger, et al. 2006). Glass used in th e building indus tr y tod a y is mainl y soda - lime - slica gl ass. Glass is an indispensable building material in buildings as a uniform, transpar ent, brittl e material with various t ypes and differ ent properties (Schittich , et al. 2007). It se ems that glass as a m aterial will continue to exist. But man y new applications and manufacturing processes will be involved in the production of glass, in combination with other materials. Glass is one of the oldes t building material. As a natural material, its origin was f rom volcanic finds that had been discovered al most more than 5000 yea rs ago in Mesopotamia. The earliest objects mad e of gl a ss in beadlike forms, vases and ju gs, appear ed in the tom bs of Eg yptian Pharaohs in the 4 t h centur y BC. These could be the refe renc e s of th e first gla ss manufactur e, alt hou gh the origin of glass manu factur e is not certain. Bott les and the first window pan es fo r buildings became available with the usage of heat for the t ran sformation of sand, se aw eed, brushwood, and lime into a ran ge of forms and colors in Eg ypt around 2 n d centur y BC. An important invention on gl ass that is still used toda y was the blowin g of iron. P roduction of blo wn glass , which led to the production of thin tr ansparent sheets stron g enough for windows was first used i n Syria around 200 BC. This invention made the production of holl ow glass objects possible which gave a start for the relationship between glass and architecture. The production method easily ex tended to Europ e in time bec ause S yria was part of the Roman E mpire at that time. Later, the production of the first flat, hardl y transp arent glass em er ged with the casting method b y the Ro mans (Bell 2006). 4 5 Figure 4.2: Pompeii and Herculaneum Source : http :// www. als - tr avels .co m/I ta l y/ her cu lane u m. ht m R eplacement of opaque stonelike sheets of alabaster or marble to transparent glass windows had occurred after the method of pouring the mol ten gl ass onto a table in the sixth centur y AD. Glass became thinner, and m ore translucent with this method. The ex cavations in 79 AD reveal the first use of glass as a part of building envelope which had been practiced in villas at Pompeii and Her culaneum. Small flat panes of gl ass wer e made by th e Romans. These panes that were s et up with or without frame were approx . 300x 500 mm and were 30 - 60 mm thick (Schittich , et al. 2007). Production of glass was made gener all y fo r the churches and monasteries in the Middle Ages. Glass was us ed to creat e a spiritual environ ment with a great displa y of colors and shimmering light. Besid es, it was a repres entative element of the Christian faith in Medieval and Gothic cat hedrals in celebration of cult ural and s ymbolic understandin g. Colored glass was first used in Byz antine Empire and spre ad to Norman d y, Bur gund y and the Rhineland. Glass was often painted and organized into small segme nts to get the ex ternal light into the space with aesthetic pr operties, to displ a y the architectural structure and surf ace qu alit ies ( Richards & Gilbert 2006). Since the Middle Ages, the two most important methods ; the blown c ylinder sheet and crown glass pro cess we re th e basic glass sh eet produ ction techniques, us ed until the late ninete ent h and earl y twentieth centur y. Both method s aimed to cre ate pure and ha rd glass mate rial. 4 6 Figure 4.3: The crown glass production Source : http :// www. sa sh gla ss. co . uk/ yo ur - sas h - windo w - glas s . ht ml The cit y of Venice was the le adin g produ cer of glass obje cts and mirrors that were ex ported to German y and Fran ce betwe en fifte enth and seventeenth ce nturies using glass withou t color or painting (Schittich, et al. 20 07). Casting hot, mol ten glas s on a la r ge coppe r tabl e and sp readin g it out with a heavy metal roller was a new method of making plate glass. It was invented in 1687 by a Fren chman Berna rd Perr ot. Starting in the seventeenth centur y, glass was not onl y used for church es and monasteries but also for glazing palac es a nd houses. As a result of increasin g use of glass, producers tried to find new methods of production. Simple and economical method of production made it possible to produce the first la rge sheets of relativel y - undistorted gla ss measuring up to 1.2x 2 m. Aft er several improvements in the original batch te chnique culminated in the Bicher oux process (1918), glass was received by powe r - driven rollers t hen delivered into thinner sheets of gr eater len gth . Even with these ne w produ ction tec hniques, glass continued to be an ex pensive mat erial by the end of the 18 t h centur y (Schittich, et al. 2007). 4 7 Figure 4.4: The production of polished plate glass Source : http :// www. lo nd o ncr o wn gla ss. f9 . co . uk/ Histo r y. ht ml Developm ents of new glass produ ction methods that started in Franc e made gr eat progress in the 19 th centur y. Production of huge glass panes in great amo unts became possible in a short period of time, for the const r uction of Cr ystal Palac e in England in 1850 - 51. This success demons trated the enormo us potential of gl ass as an architectural material. Figure 4.5: The Crystal Palace in England Source : http ://en. wikipedia.o r g/ wiki/File: Cr ys tal_ P alac e. P NG It be came an important issue to develop mech anical production te chniques of sheet glass bec ause of the gr owing demand for glass in the const ruction industr y and the requirement fo r ever la rger ex panses. This was achieved in the earl y ye ars of the twentieth centur y. Ex changin g ideas betwe e n Belgian, British an d American 4 8 manufactur ers, glass production techniques rapidl y developed. One of the se techniques of m anufa cturing dr awn glass, call ed th e Fou rc ault process was develo ped b y Emile Fourc ault in Belgium in 1904. With this method, drawn sh eet glass was produced b y dipping a le ader into a vat of mol ten glass, lat er pulling that le ade r straight up while a film of glass hard ened ju st out of the vat. Undulations as a result of the pu lling and the stress occurr ed afte r its use which made it difficult to cut were some disadvanta ges of this method (Schittich , et al. 2007). The nex t major step in the evolution of sh eet gla ss production was the developm ent of Libb y - O wens pro cess in America in 1905 which made it possible to produce high - qualit y glass sheets econ omicall y in lar ge quantities for the first time. Irving Colburn improved the method an d the gl ass was bent ho rizontall y over a st eel roll er differentl y than what Four cault prop osed. These ch an ges ma de glass mor e flat and cu tting becam e easier (He gge r , et al. 2006). Another important progr ess about cast gl ass production was developed b y Max Bicheroux in 1919. He c ombined differ ent methods to produce cast glass. The hot glass was shaped b y cool ed rolle r s. The panes th at were cut out of hot glass in dimensions of 3 x 6 m were made possible (He gge r, et al. 2006). After mor e than several years of rese ar ch, the most im portant step on the wa y to SroGucing really flat glass Zas Alastair PilNington’s float glass SroGuction methoG. That is a method of production that is used in the most of the glass used in architecture indus tr y tod a y. In this process, the glass was pour ed onto a bath of liquid tin. It floats on the level surf ac e and sp reads out re gularl y. At the end of the pro cess, t he glass exits from the bath, gets coo ler and finall y cut to size. This method gives glass sh eet a uniform thickness, flatt er sur fac e and a pos sibility to be produc ed in lar ge r sizes. Alastair PilNington’s float glass SroGuction methoG is useG ZorlGZiGe anG formeG the basis of most glass produ ction toda y (Schittich, et al. 2007) . The building skin has become a pro gr essivel y important part of bu ilding design in recent ye ars. New con struction techniques, availability of new building materials brought differ ent opportunities into the architectur al design aren a. 4 9 Although man y new mat erials appea r, gl ass, as one of the oldest building material, still remains to be important and it is one of the most comm onl y used building skin material as a s ymbol of the contemporar y facad e. Different char acte ristics of glass like transparen c y, refle ction, color and diffe rent fun ctions of glass like weath er prot ection , daylight regulation mak e the role of glass mat erial more important. Overwhelmin g improvements in glass te chnolog y over the last two decad es made inconc eivable things possible. Instead of the cl ear transp aren c y of the gl ass toda y the ex ploration of the ra nge of transparen c y and tra nslucenc y is gaining importance. This transition could be ex perience with the t echniques of printing, etching, co ating the gla ss surfac e or overlappin g metal she et in front of the glass. Toda y gl ass is tinted, laminated, coated with different mat erials, per fora ted, la ye red, insul ated, wired, temper e d, fritted for diffe rent cases . Architects and rese ar chers respect traditional usage of glass but the y also tr y to find different forms of glass as a building skin material. In the fo l lowing section, the glas s as a building skin ma terial will be investigated as cas e studies. 4.1.2 Properties of glass C onsisting of sand, sod a, lime and oth er additives, glass is a hard mat erial and it is resistant to wear. Beside s, it is a brittle mate rial that is weak in tension because of its non - cr ystalline mol ecula r structure. Glass fractur es immediatel y when gla ss is stressed be yond its stren gth limit. The othe r prominent pro pert y of glass as a building m aterial is its transparenc y. It absorbs radi ation just like all other building materials, but this absorption is not detectable by the human e ye. That is the reason wh y glass appe ars transparent. It 's tr anspar ent to a ran ge of wavel ength known as visible light. It also controls light, saves on ener g y costs providing natural da y lighting an d it helps to harmonize a stru cture with its environment ( Schittich, et al. 2007). Glass is an incombustible material but it starts to soften at about ƒ&. The siliceous comSonent of glass provides great re sista nce to aggressive su bstances ex cept hyd roflu oric acid and hot alkaline solutions. About its acoustical prope r ties, gl ass is a good cond uctor mate rial 5 0 compared to other building m aterials becaus e of its low mass structure (W ell er, et al. 2009) . All these g ene ral prop erties make glass on e of th e important building mat erials of ou r time. There are m an y different t ypes of glass use d as a building material and each have different prope rties. Different t ypes of glass and their prope rties will be studied in the f oll owing se ction. 4.1.3 Types of glass products The t yp es of glass with different featur es for various functions are availabl e toda y. This section will stud y glass in three parts; the t ypes of glass accordin g to their comm ercial role; the t yp es of glass in terms of the production methods and special t ype s of glass. 4.1.3.1 Basic types of commercial glass today C haracte rizing by their composition and use, there ar e six basic types of comm ercial glass tod a y. The six basic types that are soda - lime, lead , borosilicate, aluminosilicate,%96 silica and fused silica glass which wi ll be described in this section (Bell 2006). In the field of const ru ction and in other indus tries, glass has a wide app lication area. Types of comm er cial gla ss used most l y fo r purpo s es other than building skin are; lead glass, bo rosilicate glass, aluminosilicate glass, %96 silica glass and fused silica glass. Le ad gl ass is used fo r different purposes such as electrical applications and some art work. As a result of the developm ents in glass indus tr y in the twentieth centur y, a new lead glass of high optical clarit y was produ ced an d used for de corative vases, bowls, and glasses notabl y in Art Deco st yl e. It is still used comm on in industrial and decor ative applications. Borosilicat e gla ss is used where combinations of high thermal fatigue resistance , high dielect ric stren gth and good che mical resistanc e are nee ded. It is used for light bulbs , headlight s, pipes, laborator y glass ware, bak ewa re and high temperature thermom eters. Aluminosili cate glass is a low - e x pansion; chemicall y resistant glass 5 1 contains aluminum oxide. It is used for high performanc e militar y power tubes, traveling wave tubes and applications similar to borosilicate applications. It is produced by float glass method and us ed for fired resistant glazing. %96 silica gl ass is a borosilicate glass that co ntains 7 - 15 per cent boro n oxide. This typ e of gla ss is used for fire protection, windows of spac e vehicles and so me labor ator y glass ware s. Fused silica glass is a pure silica gla ss that is rarel y used be cause it is very ex pansive, difficult to fabricate and it has too high a softenin g tem peratur e. It is onl y us e d for critical applications such as medic al and ch emical equipment (Bell 2006). Among the six basic typ es soda - lime i s the most comm onl y used glass toda y. It is the cheap est t ype of glass an d alm ost %90 percent of all glass produced toda y is soda - lime glass. The majo rity of ar chitectural gl ass is some t ype of sod a - lime glass. It is composed of about %70 per cent of silica , 12 - 18 per cent s oda and 5 - 12 pe rc ent lime and much small er amount s of various other compounds . Bec ause it is inex pensive, ch emicall y stable, reason abl y hard, and ex tremel y workabl e, it is convenient for man ufacturing fo r a wide ar ra y of gl ass pro ducts (Sc hittich, et al. 2007). 4.1.3.2 Basic types of glass according to production methods This section of the study will concentr ate on glass in terms of production methods which are; float glass, cast glass, pressed glass, glass fibres and foam gl ass and gl ass ceramics. Float glass is most comm onl y used fo rm of basic glass toda y. Th e float gla ss production method was develop ed in 1960 and bec ame a bre akthrough in the histor y o f production of flat glas s. This develo pment chan ged th e meth od of glass production which was used in const ruction indus tr y, because it made possible it to produce large quantities of glass that are clear and transp arent with nearl y flat surfaces. In this process, gl ass is moved f rom the m elting t ank t o the flo at bath at a te mperature of about 105 0 ƒ&. 1e[t the molten glass runs onto a flat bath of molten tin anG it cools GoZn to about ƒ&. Its lower gravit y gives its flat shape and this process ends up with parall el faces, flat surfac es and pe rfe ct trans parenc y. It is the primar y material for the greate r part of singl e 5 2 and double glazing s yste ms used for fac ades toda y. Th e available thicknes s of the float glass is in between 0.5 - 25 mm, the practical thickness used for buildings i s usuall y in between 2 - 19 mm. The maximum sizes of the panes ar e ne arl y 3.20 x6.00 m (Schittich, et al. 2007). Figure 4.6: The float process Source : http :// www . e no tes.co m/a uto mo bile - windshield - r e fe r ence /auto mo bile - winds hield C ast glass is one of th e oldest glass production methods used in histor y sinc e the fifteenth centur y B.C. C ast or rolled glass is pro duced b y a method in which the glass passes throu gh a continuous ribbon of glass between cooled rolle rs. It is possible to develop the cast glass with differ ent applications. The patt erns th at are ins cribed in the rollers giYe the glass it’s SatterneG unGulating shaSe for ornamental or SatterneG glass. The r oll ers make it possible to incorporate a wire mesh to produce a wired glass. Profile glass is also a form of roll ed glass. Cast glass is architecturall y used to design private space o r achieve diffusio n of daylight (Achiller & Navratil 2009) . It is most l y used in the forms of channel gla ss products, glass blocks or patt ern ed glass. Glass bricks, glass ceiling tiles anG concrete glass are NnoZn as the term ³SresseG glass´. TZo boGies of glass are pr essed to geth er with the pressing me thod. After it gets cool e r, the holl ow space betwe en two bodies provides good soun d insul ation. Toda y pre ssed gl ass is primarily used for tr ansparent roofin g tiles and ferro concr ete structur es . The drawn glass pl a ys an assisting role in the glass production indus tr y. In this meth o d, the endless 5 3 ribbon of glass is dra wn verticall y out of th e m elt . This typ e of glass often used for restor ation proje cts on old buildings (He gger, et al . 2006). 4.1.3.3 Basic types of special glasses Tempered gl ass, sometimes call ed tou ghen ed gl ass, is known as a safet y glass. It is SroGuceG by heating it at least  ƒ& anG TuicNly cooling it. All sheet glass SroGucts could be used for tempe red gl ass production. Tempered glass is a ver y st rong mate rial and when it fails it brea ks into man y small piec es which avoid injuries. This type of glass is used for architect ural purposes like building facad e and most of the lar ge she ets of gl asses are temp ered. The sizes of the tempe re d glass product ch an ges accordin g to the manufactur er, but the possible temper ed fl oat glass dimen sions at present ar e 3.21x 8.0 m (Bell 2006). Laminat ed glass is a co mbination of one or mo re sheets of glass with interla ye r of pol ymers such as pol yvinyl. This gl ass is particu larl y suitable wh ere it is important to ensure the resista nc e of the whole sh eet after breaka ge such as: store fronts, stair - railings, sk ylights. It can be also us ed fo r recordin g studi os to provide ins ulation (Bell 2006). Figure 4.7: Shanghai Oriental Art Center¶V ODPLQDWHG VNLQ Source : http :// www2 . d up o nt.c o m/Sa fet yGlas s/e n_ US/ wh ats _ ne w/o riental_ ar t_ ce nter . h t ml 5 4 Another t ype of spe cial glass is gl ass blocks. Me lting the glass and casting it into she ll s is the starting point of t he glass blo ck produ ction method. Fusing two of these shells togethe r, sometimes with a spa ce in betwe en, is the method to mak e on e glass block. These massive glass blo cks ar e available in different colors, sh apes, t ex tures, s izes and the y can be us ed for inte rior and ex terior wall s (Well er 2005). Figure 4.8: Backlit glass bricks of Le Prisme in France Source : http :// www. ar chd ail y.co m /5 3 9 0 /le - p risme - b risac - go nza lez/ C hannel glass is a typ e of glass that can be used for alm ost all applications in architectu re. It is a self - s upporting s ystem of cast glass channels and usua ll y produc ed in U - shape. It is usuall y set in a vertical alumin um framing syst em. Channel glass is a tex tured material and all ows architect to design with more glass providing lar ge ar eas of light transmitting (Bell 2006). 5 5 Figure 4.9: Channel glass used in Gardner 1050 in USA Source : http :// www. ar chd ail y. co m/2 3 3 3 6 /gar d ner - 1 0 5 0 - lo r can - o %E2 %8 0 %9 9 her lihy - ar c hitects/ Insul ating glass is cons tructed with two or mo re sheets of gl ass and separat ed b y a sealed sp ac e to provide thermal insul ation and condensation control . The spac e between two la ye rs of sheets can be filled with dr y air or low - conductivity gas. This space filled with gas also helps with sound insul ation. As an insul ating glass, diffe rent thicknesses of sheet glas s products, flat or curved can be used. The width of the space between two la ye rs i s in between 12 - 2 0 mm toda y (He gge r, et al. 2006). Wire glass is a type of rolled glass that is produced as a result of continuous rolling process. The differen ce between rolled glass and wired glass is that a wire mesh is put togethe r with the glass sheet to provide more secure and fire resista nt glass. The maximum available dimensions of wired glass are 1980x 3820mm . The wired glass actuall y is not stronger than the glass without wire mesh, but it keeps the glass to get her if a breaka ge happens (Bell 2006). 5 6 4.1.4 Processing of glass ± surface treatments The properties of glass can be adopted b y various surface tr eatm ents. Thes e applications are us ed either for creating new functions or achieving aesthetic ef fects . Even th ese treatm ents are usuall y for aesthetic purposes, adding a coating to the surfac e might chan ge its prop erties. C oating the glass with a thin film of metal or m etal oxide is an imp ortant part in the process of a surf ace tr eatm ent. The most comm on surface treatm ent t ypes are; ena meling, obscu ring proc e sses, silk - scre en printing and op ticall y effe ctive co atings (Schittich, et al. 2007). Enameling pro cess start s with the application o f enamel powder onto the surfac e of glass and continuing with the baking until it produces ce ramic coating that is corrosion - resistant coating. These ceramic ink tre ated en amel glass es ar e thick - film coatings applied to the whole surf ace on on e side of th e gl ass or just to specific par ts by diffe rent techniques. Enam eled glass can be produced opaque, t ranslucent or transpa rent dependin g on the color or the thickness of the glass . Obsc urin g proc ess is about decre asin g the transpar e nc y of the glass surf ac e . T here ar e chemical an d mechanical methods available. On e of them is acid - etching t hat can provide matt finish to the gl ass surfac e with h yd rofluoric acid or its vapors tr ea tm ents. Patt erns and pictures can be applied on to the surface by masking certain are a s. Another technique is sand - blasting method to create tr anslucent glass sur fac e. Similar to the acid - etching te chnique, appl yin g patt erns b y m asking is possible. Silk - screen printing is a tr e atm ent about printing the pigments on to the gl ass and baking i t in an oven. With the help of m esh stencils it is possible to provide glass pan es with different motifs and patt er ns printed on them. The size of sten cils is usuall y 2.0x 3.5 m an d the size of patt e rn on t he surf ace is determined b y th e size of stencils. M ulti - color ed graphics, photo graph s, an y fo rm of decorations can be pro vided by this tre atm ent method (Schittich, et al. 2007). 5 7 Figure 4.10: Silkscreen printed skin of Stadshuis Nieuwegein in Netherland Source : http :// www. ar chd ail y. co m/2 2 0 8 9 9 /stad shuis - nie uwe gein - 3 xn/ Opticall y effe ctive coatings redu ce the refle ction from the glass surf ace. There are two wa ys to achieve the red u ction of the surfa ce refle ction. One of them is ap pl yin g la yers on the glass sur fac e and the other on e is embos sing microscopic stru cture s in a la ye r of synthetic material that reduces the refr active inde x of the glass. The treat ments that are described above are the most comm onl y us ed on es, but there are othe r tre atm ents still in use. Surfa ce treatm ents of the gl ass as a building material en rich th e co rpo realit y which also provides enrichm ent in building skin design. 4.2 CONCRETE AS A BUILDING MATERIAL 4.2.1 History of concrete as a building skin material C oncrete is a mixture of water, ce ment and aggre gat e originall y. C onc rete started to be made with diffe rent t yp es of cement and also additives, admixtures and various aggre gat es (Neville & Brooks 1987 ) . Concr ete is an artificial and het ero geneous bui lding material that has pla ye d an important rol e in the developm ent of buildings in histor y. Concr ete is a durable, massive and mo nolithic m aterial and eas y to work 5 8 with . It is a material that is strong in compression and it is eas y to shape it by casting method. I t can be designed in an y form, size an d tex ture which is one of the most essential featur es of co ncrete that mak es it an important building material (Bel l 2006) . The origins of con crete as a buil ding mat erial ex tend as far a s an cient times. People used lime m ortar as a building material around 12.000 B.C . The invention of opus caementitium a concr ete like material dates back to the 2 nd centur y B.C. The opus caementitium w as used by th e Romans and it s application can be trac e d in their architectu re. Pan theon in Rome (A.D.118) and its advance use of conc rete has been ver y influential in archit ectural histor y. With the fall of the Roman Empire, the opus caementitium lost its importance and was not rediscovered for nearl y 1500 ye ars (Herz o g, et al. 2004 ) . Figure 4.11: Pantheon in Rome Source : http :// www. tr avel - tidbits.co m/ tidbits/0 0 5 8 24 . sht ml The wide spread use of con crete as a building mat erial has started aft er the invention of Portl and cement. J oseph Aspdin patented the cement which he call ed as Portl and cement in 1824 and it was known as the m ost prevalent cement used in the production of concret e by the technical chan ges . I.C J ohnson used differe nt method and produced th e first true Portl and cem ent in 1845. After the invention of good concret e, nex t step was t o reinfor ce it , combining with iron. Concrete was strong in compression but weak in tension. The reinforce ment was applied in order to use c oncret e in a more innovative wa y, with making longe r spans p ossible (Cr oft 2004). 5 9 E ngine ers from differ ent countries tried to devel op reinforc ed con cret e during the 1850s. J oseph Monier register ed for a patent fo r his reinforc ed flow e rpots with iron mesh i n 1867, a fter that, he built concr ete water t anks, bridges, beams and colum ns. William Wilkinson from England was the pioneer of th e con crete used in the const ruction of a hous e. Thaddeus H ya tt designed reinfo rced con crete be a ms and his principles are simi lar t o the basic use of reinforced concr ete toda y. The first reinforc ed con cret e hous e in the United States wa s built in New York b y W. E. Wand in 1875. A French buil der named Fran cois Hennebique patented his reinforc ed concret e s yst em in the 1870s (Bell 2 004). By th e end of the 19 t h centur y , widespre ad use of reinforc ed conc rete was seen in different t yp es of buildings. Concr ete as a com posite building material started to dominate the building co nstruction. Lar ge and co mpl ex structures started to be built in short period s of time and con cret e bec ame an important building material of ex perimental architectu r e. B y 1900, con cr ete and reinforc ed con cret e became th e primar y el ements of the building const ruction in all around the world. One of the most important architect s who started to use co ncrete in an influential wa y was Auguste Per ret. He designed the apartment block in Paris in 1903 and its fac ad e was the first ex ampl e of concrete faca d e for a reside ntial building. R einforced concrete frame structur e was r evealed in the highl y glaz ed fac ade of Rue Franklin Apartments. Figure 4.12: Rue Franklin Apartments by Auguste Perret Source : http :// www. gr ea tb uildings. co m/b uildings/R ue_ Fra n klin_ Ap ar t me nts. ht ml 6 0 Architects were ex cited about the possibilities of reinfor ced con cret e as a new building material. The y tried to ex perien ce its sculpt ural possibilities. Besides its structural and sculpt ural prop erties, the visible co ncrete su r fa ce st arted to be used as is. Architects such as Le Corbusier, Lud wing Mies van der Rohe, Louis Kahn use d concrete in an innoYatiYe Zay. )ranN LloyG :right’s 8nity &hurch at OaN ParN in Illinois (1904 -   Louis Kahn’s -onas Salk Institu te at La Joll a (1959 - 65) were some of the go od ex ampl es of conc ret e used in buildings (Herz o g, et al. 2004). Figure 4.13 LRXLV .DKQ¶V -RQDV SDON IQVWLWXWH DW LD -ROOD Source : http :// www. d ail yic on. net/2 0 0 8 /0 7 /icon - j o nas - sal k - institute/ B y the eme r genc e of the new brutalism during 1960s, architects start ed t o focus on the rou gh su rfa ce of th e con crete skin with different tex tures and patt erns on it. Under the influence of this new architectural movement, Louis Kahn stated that concret e gains its aesthe tic qualities by the wa y it is created. He support s his idea with his thou ghts about the Yale Art Gall er y as; “...the formwork was made from floor to floor, and this line was accented; because what we tried to do in the expression of the building was to show in every way how it was built. This formwork was made of small floorboards, and the little holes that you see there indicated the tie thoughts in the formwork. These were left as holes in the concrete so that in every way, how it was made is apparent. We accentuated the struggle of building… When you take the forms off, something always happens in an ugly soupy way... if you actually know that (and you put in a joint) so you can really 6 1 see it, then it sets up its own pattern. And I believe that these joints are the beginning of ornament.” ( Latour, refe rrin g to Kahn 1991). Figure 4.14: Yale Art Gallery Source : Sez egen, A. During the 19 60s and 1970s, architects start ed to use the advanta ge of the three - dimensional moul dability of the bu ilding skin in concret e. T he y also adde d an artistic ex pression on to the sur f ace of the conc rete skin. The pil grima ge chur ch in N eviges (1963 -  by GottfireG B|hm Zas one of the gooG e[ampl es of this approa ch (Herz o g, et al. 2004). Figure 4.15: The pilgrimage church in Neviges Source : http :// www. flic kr . co m/p ho to s/ seier /3 1 6 5 56 4 4 53 /in/p ho to str ea m/ 6 2 In contempor ar y architecture con cr ete applications can be seen in diffe r ent forms. Ex posed concrete with differ ent tex tures or silk - screen ed photograp hs on the concret e surf ac e s ar e so me of the wa ys concr et e is used in buildings. The Swiss arc hitects Herz og & de Meuron are known with their inf luential us e of co ncrete. The J apanese architect TaGao AnGo is NnoZn as ³concrete Soet´ and design influential buildings by using con cr et e. Ando (2000, p.51) e x plains his use of concrete as; ³The wa y I empl o y con cr ete, it lacks sculpt uresque solidity and weight. It serves to produce light, homogene ous surfac es. I tre at con crete as a cool, inor ganic material with a concealed ba ck gro und of str ength. M y inten t is not to ex press the nature of the material itself but to emSloy it to establish the single intent of the sSace.´ &oncrete’s simple production, eas y manuf actur e, sculp tural possibilities and man y featur es have made con c rete one of the most important building skin materials. Its various potentials in the design of building skin have influen ced architects in using concret e in an innovative wa y. 4.2.2 The Properties of Concrete C oncrete , a mixture of Portl and ceme nt, wate r, and aggre gate, usu all y cru shed stone or gr avel is strong in compression but weak in tension. When it is reinforced with steel it gets stronger in tension. It also gains stre ngth over time. It is naturall y a fire proof building material that does not burn. It is a versat ile material that is used for various building t ypes. Compared to other building mate rials it is low in cost. The proportions and cha ract e ristics of cement, water and aggr e gate affe ct the qualit y of the conc rete. The wate r/cement ratio of the conc rete defi nes its str en gth; less wate r provides more stren gth. Aggre gate gives the main structural cap acit y to the concr ete and for an ideal str en gth it is good to use grad ed mix of fine and coa rse aggre gat e ( Bell 2004). C oncrete is a shapel ess building material and it is eas y to shap e it in an y form with framewo rk. This is one of the most important advanta ges of con crete fo r architects. The various possible fo r ms, sculpt ural and struct ural possibilities have made conc rete one of the most influential building materia ls. 6 3 4.2.3 Types of concrete material There are different t yp es of concr ete used f o r building skin. C oncrete will be investigated in two different cat e gories in this stud y ; the most comm on t ypes of concret e and the sp ecial t yp es o f conc rete. 4.2.3.1 The most common types of concrete The most comm on t yp e s of concr ete used in const ruction can be divided in five different t yp es as; reinf orced concr ete, cast - in place concr ete, pr ecast concret e, concret e masonr y units, autoclaved cell ular conc re te. C oncrete is a mat erial th at is stron g in comp ression. S teel is embedded in concret e in order to make it stron g in tension anG this comSosite material is calleG ³reinforceG concrete´. ReinforceG concrete is a comSosition of tZo mat erials; ste el an d conc rete and thei r per forman ce against resisting fo r ces st ren gthens each other. St ructurall y, this materia l is convenient for the cas es wher e both strength in compr ession and tension is required. Figure 4.16: Wire reinforcements placed before the pouring of concrete Source : http :// www. b ritan nica. co m/EB chec ked /to pic /4 9 6 6 07 /r einfo r ce d - co ncr ete 6 4 S teel is used as steel reinforcem ent bars, high - str e ng th cables or ste el mesh in concret e for reinfo rcem ent. Reinforced con cret e is most l y used for structural colu mns, beams, wall panels, slabs, or different structur al purposes (Peck 2006). Cast in plac e con cret e is also known as pour ed - in place conc rete or s ite - cas t concr ete . This type of con crete is poured directl y on site with the help of for mwork . Th e concr et e is cast into the formwork which is removed after the co ncrete gets strength ened. Be cause cast in place concr ete is poured in plac e pa rticularl y for a specific project with sp ecific features , it gives a unique ex pression to the building. There ar e no limitations of size or sh ape and this featur e of cast in pla ce con cr ete strengths the sculpt ur al qualit y of con crete. Cast - in place conc rete is rel a tively more ex pensive and takes mor e time during const ruction (Bell 2004). Precast concrete is also calleG as ³SrefabricateG´ con cret e. P recast concret e is produced in a factor y an d then moved to the site for the application. The production of precast concr ete i n a controll ed environment helps to decre ase the cost of the c onst ruction and it saves time. Figure 4.17: A precast concrete walled in construction Source : http :// www. a r ticles web . o r g/ho me - a nd - d ec o r ating/p r ec aste - co ncr ete - wa lls There are m an y diffe ren t t ypes of pr ec ast conc re te application s in differ e nt sizes, to meet with the demands of differ ent functions. Precast conc rete can be pro duced in the fo rms of panels, slabs, beams and other different purposes as we ll as enclosure elements (Bell 2004). 6 5 C oncrete masonr y units are conc rete blocks which are produc ed as casting into formworks. The y are pr oduced in size of 203x203x 406 mm as standard concr ete blocks with holl ow core s. Their stren gth can be improved b y filling the cores with steel and concr ete. Conc rete Masonr y Units can be found in various sizes, colors and te[tures GeSenGing on the Gesigner’s selection. Its most common use is in wall s of the b uildings (Bell 2004). Figure 4.18: A modern block plant in operation and its application in site Source: http :// www. c e me nt.o r g/ maso nr y/b lo ck. a sp Autoclaved cell ular con c rete, also call ed Autoclaved aerat ed concr ete is a lightweight and p recast conc rete. It has been us ed in Europ ean countries since 192 0s. Its l ight weight also saves cost in const ruction and ener g y in t ransportation. In low - rise building s, it can be us e d as load - b earing wall s and in high - rise it can be used for curtain wall s. Figure 4.19: Autoclaved aerated concrete block with a sawn surface Source : http :// www. u nd er standing - ce me nt.c o m/a ut o claved - ae r ated - co ncr ete. ht ml 6 6 It has a low densit y but its t hermal insul ation values are two times more than conventional con cret e. I t can be designed in the fo rm of lintels, floor slabs, blocks and panels (Bell 2004). 4.2.3.2 Special Types of Concrete There are also special t ypes of concr ete that designe rs ar e able to use in their bui ldings. The two most recentl y used t yp es of co ncrete that are: tr ansluce nt concret e and tex tile - reinforced co ncrete. Production of translucent concrete that is also known as light transmitting conc ret e was developed b y Hun garian ar chitect Aron Lo sonczi. Concrete was embedded by fibre optics to tr ansmit light from one side to th e other. These fibres trans m it the light up to 20 meters without serious light loss . This feature brings new opportu n ities in the use of conc rete as a building skin material. Figure 4.20: White, translucent alabaster is cast in beige glass fiber-reinforced concrete in the skin of the Louis Vuitton flagship store in Ginza, Tokyo Source : http :// www. ao kijun. co m/en / wo r ks/0 4 7 6 7 Its inve ntor Èron Losonczi e[Slains the neZ tySe of concr ete as  ³ThousanGs of optical glass fibers fo rm a matrix and run parall el to each othe r betwe en th e two main surfac es of ever y blo ck. Shadows on the light er side will appea r with sharp outlines on the darker one. Even the colors remain the same. This sp ecial effect create s the gener al imSression that the thicNness anG Zeight of a concrete Zall Zill GisaSSear.´ ( htt p:/ /www.esk yiu.com/ aainter1/index _files/t ransmaterial.pdf ) Transluc e nt concr ete break the cold ex pression of concr ete as a building mate rial on the facad e. It aims to creat e building skin that refle cts interio r to th e ex terior and vise vers a which cr eate s architects a building skin that can chan ge with the chan ges of ligh t. The versatile use of the light t ransmitting concr ete opens new horizons in the twent y - f irst centur y architectu re (Peck 200 6) . U sing fibres as a reinforcin g element in conc rete creates fibre - r einfor ced conc rete . This composite material contains fibres ma de from glass , s ynthetic mate rials, steel or carbon. These short and randoml y oriented fibres incre ase the tensile st ren gth of the material (H e gger, et al. 2006). With the developm ents in concr ete te chnolo g y, tex tile - reinforced conc re te is one of the most influential composite building skin materials in contemporar y architectur e. Tex tile reinforced concr e te is a produ ct that started to be used after the developm ent of the fibre - rein forc ed con c rete. Th e differ enc e bet ween t ex tile reinforc ed concret e and fibr e reinfor ced concr ete is the form of the fibre s. Instead of the sho rt fibres, tex tile reinforc ed con crete us es nets, waves and tex tiles. These tex tiles are made from gl ass, carbon or aramid fibres. Figure 4.21: Different reinforcing systems Source : http :// www. j ec co mp o sites.co m/ ne ws /co mp o sites - ne ws/ textile - r einfo r ce d - c o ncr ete - high - p er fo r ma nce - ca r b o n - fib re - grid s 6 8 Tex tile - reinforced concr ete technolo g y makes thinner building skin and high - qualit y fair fac e concr ete possible. Wide spread use of textile reinforced concr ete with its influential features can be seen in the design of the load - bea ring structur e , the internal finishe s or the building skin. It can also be us ed as sun shadi ng el ements on the fac ade (Peck 2006). Figure 4.22: Development of a textile reinforced concrete facade, RWTH University, Aachen Source : http :// www. huping.d e /p ages/e ng lish/r ef s/te xtilbeto n . ht ml 4.2.4 Concrete - Surface treatments Various surf ace t reatm e n ts can cr eate differ ent aesthetic effe cts. Acid - etching, sand blasting or flame - c le aning can be used to rou ghen the concret e surfa ce to create semi - matt surfac e finish. Us e of white cem ent, col ore d aggre gat es or pigments create special eff ects on the concrete surf ac e by traditional stonemason techniques such as bush hamm ering, pointing, chise ling, and splitting. 6 9 Figure 4.23: Sand blasted concrete Source : http :// www. d r ea mstime. co m/r o ya lt y - fr ee - sto ck - p h o to gr ap h y - sa nd - b las ted - co ncr ete - r o u gh - sur fac e - ima ge1 1 6 0 4 9 57 / http :// www. p aul - b r o wn. co m/G A L LE RY /P UB LI C AR/I P SW I CH. HT M Another surf ace tr eatm en t is about printing images on to the concret e surf ac e. One of the first ex amp les of this treatm ent is the skin of the Pfaff enholz Sports Centre designed b y Herz o g & de Meuron. In this method, screen of images were ap plied to the underl yin g aggr e gate s of concr ete pan els to design the building skin. Ph otographic images are printed on t o a pol yst yr ene she et and placed unde r the formwo r k which concret e will be cast into . After two da ys th e form work is turned out and th e concr ete panel is wash cle aned. Figure 4.24: Pfaffenholz Sports Centre Source : http :// www. co ncr ete. net. au /p ub lications/p d f/ mix05 . p d f 7 0 These surf ace t reatm ents that are des cribed above are the most comm onl y used ones. There are also other tre atm ents still in use. Concrete with surfac e tre atm ents as a building skin material pr ovide architects more design possibilities. 7 1 5. DESIGN OF BUILDING SKIN IN MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE Design of building skin is becoming one of the most interesting fields of contempor ar y architectu re. Th e ex pression of building skin ex pression provides functional, visual and traditional ident it y to buildings. Building skin design influenc es both the appearan ce and performan ce of buildings. The various prop erties of the building skin encoura ge new design concepts in archit ecture. In the pr evious se ctions, the historical bac kground of the buildi ng skin and its developm ent, considering building materials were stu died in detail. Glass and conc rete as indispensable building mat erials for building skin were s elected in this section of the study. Great possibilities of these two materials lea d archi tects to develop and res ear ch bot h gl ass and conc rete. As a result architects tr y to find new wa ys of using th ese mate rials in their projects. Inves tigating the proj ects de signed b y th e influential ar chitects, using gl ass and conc rete will be enlightening to und erstand design possibilities of glass and concr ete as building skin. The design opportunities cannot be developed without under standing the pre cedents. In this sense, four architects which are well - known for th eir us e of glass and concr ete for buildi ng skin will be studied in the following se ction with their influential projects. Representative of the two architectur al periods; Modern and Contemporar y, two influential architects for each period will be studied throu gh their buildings, concent rating o n the materialit y of the building skin. For th e for mer period the projects of Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe are chosen. Le Corbusier, being one of the pion eers of mod ern architectu re, used conc re te as a building material in man y of his buildings and h e brought a new understandin g of building skin into architecture. Along with Le Corb usier , Mies is also known as one of the pioneers of mode rn architectur e. His dominant twentieth centur y ar chitectur al app roach brou ght cla rity and simplicity into architec t ural design. He became famous for his ³sNin anG bone´ conceSt in architecture anG he Gominantly useG glass in the design of the skin. For the contempor ar y period two ar chitects , Tadao Ando, for concr ete and Herz og& de Meuron, fo r gl ass will be investigate d with their influential 7 2 use of th ese two materials. Tadao Ando is famo us for his innovative use of con cr ete in most of his buildings t o achieve th e idea of simplicity. Ando was inf luenced b y Le &orbusier’s architecture Zhich maNes it imSortant to inYestigat e both of t he architects to see how the y use the sa me material as a building skin. Herz og& de Meu ron are famous contemporar y architects with their innovative use of building materials for ex terior surfac es and applications for building skin. Louis e Hux t able ’s states abou t Herz og & de Meuron tha t ; ³They refine the traGitions of moGernism to elemental simSlicity Zhile transforming materials and surfa ces throu gh the ex ploration of new treatm ents and techniTues..´ It is clea r from the statement that the y ar e focused on different building materials in their projects. The y used most l y the gl ass material with its comprehensive set of featur es while designing building skin for their projects. Modern architectu re rec a ll s the ideals of machin e age, using conc rete , gla ss and steel as building materials and by the abs ence of orna ment or an y oth er minimal ex ternal ex pression. It is importan t to understand the form and the qu alit y of th e building skin as a space definer and an inte rfac e betw een interior an d ex terior i n relation to the building an d to the building material. Also, with the aid of further studies, potentials for new building skin can be investigated. The case studies in this section aim to reflect t he diversit y of wa ys in which gl ass and concret e can be u sed and to show the possibilities of the building skin and its surface using the same material.  0IES VAN 'ER R2HE¶S A33R2A&H T2 'ESIGN 2) BUIL'ING S.IN Ludwig Mies van der R ohe a German ar chitect was born in 1886. His well - studied and clearl y detail ed proj ects were built as a result of increasin g demands of the twentieth centur y ar chitectur e. His ideas were clear and simple statements, using materials that were sh aped to ex press t heir individual char acte ristics which refl ect his ideas as declar ed by his most famous Gictum ³less is more´. AccorGing to him it Zas enough to use minimum of the reTuireG element on the Zay to a GesireG target. The statement of ³less is more´ became a motto of the minimalist architecture Zhere there is no unnecessary detail s, no wasted time or no ornamentation (Cloni nger 2008). Mies minimized the ex pression of the moder n ar chitecture. He form e d his architectur e with modern building 7 3 materials in a forthright and simple wa y. Th ese features of his architectur e influen ced th e de sign of the building skin. The skin of his buildings was const r ucted b y fewer elements in a seemingl y simple ex pression but actuall y depict a matur e lan gua ge of minimalist architectu re with the given importance to the details and an ex traordinar y s ense of proportion. His desire of flowin g spa ces to each other with a det ached str ucture and wall s ystem bec ame a prim ar y reason for him to design a new const ru ction technique consisting of a gl ass skin (Hartoonian 1994). Th e idea of clea r const ruction revealed in his statement ³The greatest effect Zith the least e[SenGiture of means. The materials are concret e, iron, glass. Fer roconcr ete buildings are essentiall y sk eleton stru c tures. Neithe r noodles nor tank turrets. Supporting gird er const r uction with a non - supp orting wall . That means skin - and - bone structures. ´(Coh en 1995) Mies Yan Ger Rohe’s aSSroach of a ³sNin anG bone´ architecture changeG the static anG compact ef fe ct of the brick and stone skins into transpar ent surfa ces. Mies was strongl y interested in th e opport unities that became pos sible as a result of ind ustrialization. Accordin g to him, indus trialization was one of the central problems of architecture at that time. He thought th at social, economic, t echnical and artistic proble ms which had occurr ed du ring building design pro cess would be solved b y realizing the indus trialization o f const ruction materials (Coh e n 1995). Tr anspar ent skin within the framewo rk of the possibilities enabled b y te ch nological developm ents in architecture strength ens his concept of ³sNin anG bone´ architecture Zith clarity anG simSlicity. AccorGing to his conceSt the ³sNin´ is the e[terior surface of the builGing anG ³bone´ is the structural frame wor k. As it is clear in his statement that; "Reinforced con crete structures are sk eletons by nature. No gingerb re ad. No fortress. Colum ns and girders eliminate bea ring wall s . This is skin and bon es const ru ction." His skin design in American high - rise buil dings was a re - inte rpret ation of cu rtain wall with his aesthetic rules. He used pro files t hat had no structural fun ction in front of the faca des. He tried to give an ex pression of the volum e inst ead of the mass and simple surfac es without ornamentation. His attempt s to demons trate the internal structure of his tall buildings on their ski n pro gresse d into symbolizing a conc ept of clear structur e. 7 4 5.1.1 GODVV DV D EXLOGLQJ VNLQ LQ 0LHV YDQ GHU RRKH¶V DUFKLWHFWXUH Mies Yan Ger Rohe’s unGerstanGing of ³contemSorary builGing´ of his time matches Zith modern building materials and mode rn bu ilding t echniques. In the earl y 1920s, he e[Slains that thinNing as ³The builGing art is the sSatially aSSrehenGeG Zill of the eSoch. AliYe. &hanging. 1eZ.´ C ohen 1995 ). His ideas were stated with clarit y and simplicity, using materials that were configur ed to show their individual characters. Mies looked for an artistic ex pression in combination of steel fra mework and glass wall s since the earl y 1920s and tried to find an understandin g of a new orde r ( Giedion 1967). In this contex t, Mies (1924) ex plains his iGeas in his essay nameG ³InGustrializeG builGing´ that “So long as we use essentially the same materials, the character of building will not change, and this character, as I have already mentioned, ultimately determines the forms taken by the trade. Industrialization of the building trade is a question of material. Hence the demand for a new building material is the first prerequisite. Our technology must and will succeed in inventing a building material that can be manufactured technologically and utilized industrially, that is solid, weather-resistant, soundproof, and possessed of good insulating properties. It will have to be a light material whose utilization does not merely permit but actually invites industrialization.” After Mies started to think about clear and honest structures be yond formalism, he investigated the new materials; steel, reinfor ced conc rete and glas s. When he e[SerienceG these materials he arriYeG at a statement of ³honesty´ as an imSortant mot to. As a result of his famous mot to, he defined repr esentative mate rials of strength as steel anG concrete as the ³bones´ of his builGings. He GesigneG ³sNin´ of his builGings Zhich coulG be coYereG oYer the ³bones´ Zith shimmering cloaN glass. He described a cle ar division betwe en th e skeleton inside and th e skin outside throu gh his ³sNin anG bone´ architecture. Actually he maGe a seSaration of materials Zith the distinction of clear str ucture and non - structure (Bl ake 1997). Combining the advanta ges of new ste el structur es, Mies refl e cted his goals with the use of glass. He ex perienc ed the idea of ex terior glass wall s in his buildings. Glass as a building skin would be one of the most influential materials for him to represent his ideas. Glass skin envelopes the steel structure. This ³sNin anG bone´ combination alloZs the integration mirror anG refle ction of the glass skin with the structure. Mies believed in the import ance of clea r 7 5 and honest stru ctures. He designed his buildings accordin g to these ideals . Besid es his structural divi sion, his material sel ection pla ye d an important role in design. His use of glass as the primar y skin material brought a new understandin g into architecture which is clearl y stated as; "Skyscrapers reveal their bold structural pattern during construction. Only then does the gigantic steel web seem impressive. When the outer walls are put in place, the structural system, which is the basis of all artistic design, is hidden by a chaos of meaningless and trivial forms...Instead of trying to solve old problems with these old forms we should develop new forms from the very nature of the new problems. We can see the new structural principles most clearly when we use glass in place of the outer walls, which is feasible today since in a skeleton building these outer walls do not carry weight. The use of glass imposes new solutions." (Mies 1922) He strongly belieYeG in the imSortance of glass sNins. As he stateG that ³The use of glass does compel us to go new ways.´ he useG glass as one of the comSonents of his b uildings rather th an just a building material ( Rich ards & Gi lbert 2006) . 5.1.2 Case Study- Seagram Building S eagram Building is one of the most influential buildings of Mies van der Rohe whe re the concept of simplicity and transpar enc y creat e d with the glass skin. Material use and application of the details are important. In on e of his most famous buildings Sea gram Building in New York, he demons trated his cle ar and honest steel frame and glass skin structure. As its imSortance stateG in a booN calleG ³Mies Yan Ger Rohe´ that "The inescapable drama of the Seagram Building in a city already dramatic with crowded skyscrapers lies in its unbroken height of bronze and dark glass juxtaposed to a granite-paved plaza below….The commercial office building in this instance has been endowed with a monumentality without equal in the civic and religious architecture of our time....The use of extruded bronze mullions and bronze spandrels together with a dark amber-tinted glass has unified the surface with color.... The tower is no longer an isolated form. It addresses itself to the context of the city." (Spe ye r & Koeper, 1968 ) 7 6 Figure 5.1: Exterior view of Seagram Building Source : http :// www. d wr l. ute xas.e d u/co nte nt/sea gr a m - b uilding 0/http :// www. lightinfu sion.d e/ 2 0 0 7 /11 /sea gr a m_ b uilding_ n yc. ht ml Refining architectu ral design into a simple form, the building was a gl ass infill st ructure that sNin anG structure Zere GesigneG on the same Slane. Then bronze ³I- beams ´ Zere aSSlieG on the entire facade of the building as vertical compelling decorative elements . The Seagram Building with its thirt y eight stor y high facad e made up of br onz e - clad pillars and amb er - tinted gl ass gives warm and s ensuou s color to the building skin. Its skin designed with floor - t o - ceiling windows that mak e the wall a curtain of glass. Th e vertical bronz e I - pro files co nnected to the mul lions demons trated the ve rti calit y of the fac a de (Zimmerman 2006). 7 7 Figure 5.2: Relationship between the skin and structure Source: Framp to n, K., 19 9 5 . ³StuGies in Tectonic &ulture- T he Po etics of Con str uction in 19th and th &entury Architecture´ The relationship betwee n building skin and tex tiles hung on the structure as the space Gefiner stateG by GottfrieG SemSer Zas still YaliG in Mies’s steel anG glass builGing sNin structures. Assembling glass panel components to the grid system consisted o f vertical and horizontal steel profiles, a new building skin design te chnique was use d in Seagram building in 1958. Figure 5.3: ³SNLQ DQG ERQH´ DUFKLWHFWXUH RI D QRPDGLF WHQW DQG WKH SHDJUDP Building Sourc e: http :// www. fac e - mu sic.ch/highaltai/j ur te/j ur tebild_ g 0 1 .j p g , http :// www. flickr . co m/p ho to s/ 8 5 3 44 1 3 @N0 3 /52 6 96 9 59 9 1 / The Sea gr am building was one of the most famous ex ampl es of Mies ' ma sterful use of glass skin. Mies sp ent gr eat ef fort on clarit y and precision. The discover y of a building 7 8 skin that matches to the new structur al ideas and qualitative chan ges in building skin b y the use of transp ar ent material, gl ass and non - structural glass wall were important featur es of his skin design appro ach, and Mies achieved to appl y thes e features of his architectu re into Sea gr a m Building perfe ctl y. 5.2 HERZ2G 'E 0EUR2N¶S A33R2A&H T2 'ESIGN 2) BUIL'ING SKIN Herz og & de Meuron ar e two influential Swiss architects sharin g prestigious Pritz ker Architectur e Prize. The y are well - known fo r their material us e an d innovative const ructions. Their architecture fo cuses on fo rma l clarity and stron g con ce pt s with pure detailing. The y tre at ar chitectural surfa ce as a skin of the building and this approach to the building skin makes the ex ploration of surfac e, the primar y th eme of their architectu re. Accordin g t o them, architectur e is a wa y of comm unication em bodied by chan gin g perceptions ins tead of static forms. This aim is achieved b y reco nsidering the surfac e - volum e relationship and chan gin g the facad e idea into immaterial pictorial layers. At this Soint it is a reference to ³sNin´ as a coYer of the architectu ra l space and it is a source GeSicting their interest on GottfrieG SemSer. SemSer’s Gefinition of architectu re was an inter est on the visual perception of the space that was formed b y the enclosure, the skin. He aimed to strengthen the relationship bet ween the space and its integr al b y his inter est on visible covering, skin. This interest influenc ed contemporar y architects Herz o g and de Meuron and it became a centr al disco ver y in their architecture (Herz o g & Meuron 2005 ). In their most influential proj ects, since the 1980s, the y have been designing facades Serforming as images or in -acTues Herzog’s ZorGs ³SositiYely saturateG Zith images´. Ex periencing thes e images as independ entl y und erl yin g stru ctures, the facade sh apes a building skin that creates a relationship betwe en inside and outside (He rz og & Meuro n 2005). In this sense Her z og & de Meuron ar chitects tried to focus on th e outer surf ace of the building as a skin and tried to make their design stron ger b y ex periencing various materials. 7 9 5.2.1 Glass as a building skin LQ HHU]RJ GH 0HXURQ¶V DUFKLWHFWXUH "We look for materials which are as breathtakingly beautiful as the cherry blossom in Japan, as dense and compact as the rock formations of the Alps or as mysterious and unfathomable as the surface of the oceans. We look for materials which are as intelligent, versatile and complex as natural phenomena, in other words materials which don't just appeal to the eyes of the astounded art critic, but are also really efficient and appeal to all our senses – not just vision but also hearing, smell, taste and touch." ( Mack , ref fering Herz o g 2005, p.230) Herz og & de Meu ron s tand at same distan ce from all materials and tr y to incr ease material’s role in builGing sNin Gesign. They aim to e[Serience material’s poetic qualit y anG Gon’t Zant to limit its characteristics Must into its e[ternal surface. AccorGing to them their concentration is on the material’s atomic structure Zhich Gefines a separation. The y st ate tha t; ³We have little faith in the material's external appearance because we are unable to derive any self-evident quality from it. After all, we are dealing with solid bodies, which therefore have a crystalline structure, understood in the chemical sense. These crystalline structures, which represent a kind of spatial imprint of the forces that exist between the individual atoms, are invisible to the naked eye. Yet they are a reality; they permit access to an understanding of the materials’ qualities, which are more interesting and complex than the usual applications of the construction industry or the understanding that the creators of Modernism had of the concept of honesty towards materials.” (Herz og 1997 , p.216) With the increasing fo cu s on the building skin, Herz og & de Meu ron aimed to transmit the pressur e betwe en de e p space and the sur fac e usuall y de fined b y the us e of glass as a transparent building material . The y use glass with its various conditions and focus on its chan gin g effe cts such as mirror ef fe ct, colorin g an d light. The y ex plain th is attempt with the statement that ³One moment it is transSarent then it is reflectiYe only to turn semi- transSarent in the ne[t minute.´ P racticing glass as an opticall y tempora r y boundar y and visible filter between interior and ex terior, the y interpr et glass in terms of its transparen c y and its rela tion to ph ysica l attitude of the building (Lupton 2007). In this contex t, the following se ction will be about Prada Ao yam a Epicent er in To k yo, a stron g 8 0 e[amSle of Herzog Ge Meuron’s ZorN to shoZ hoZ they Gesign buil ding skin and interpret glass as a building skin material. 5.2.2 Case Study- Prada Aoyama Epicenter Prada Ao yama Epicent er is designed in relation to the surrounding buildings in Omotesando fashion area in Tok yo with a prism atic form to utilize from the permitted height and distance. The re is no signboard outside the building and whole glass skin i s like a shop window (Schittich 2006). Figure 5.4: A view of Prada Aoyama Epicenter in the district of Omotesando Source : http :// www. her zo gd e me u r o n. co m/inde x /p r oj ec ts/co mp lete - wo r ks/1 7 6 - 2 0 0 /1 78 - p r ad a - ao ya ma/I M AGE . ht ml The six stor y building has a skin with a rhomboid - shape grid that is fitted by convex, concave and flat p anes of glass. Glass skin creat es a sensuous relationship between inside and outside of the building with its curves. The refl ections of the gla ss skin also demonst rate the ch a ngin g pictures o f the Prada products, the cit y and the people. (Herz o g & de Meuron 20 03). Acco rding to the lo c ation of the viewer, the effect of the skin f rom outside alw a ys chan ges as a result of its sculptural design. Th e chan gin g cha ract er of the building is strength ened by its aff ective sur fa ce st ructure 8 1 design. -acTues Herzog Gescribes these glass Sanes as ³an interactiYe oStical GeYice. Bec ause some of the glas s is curved, it seems to move as you walk around it. That creat es awaren ess of bo t h the merchandis e and th e cit y th ere 's an intense dialogue between actors. Also, the grid brings a human scal e to the architecture, like displ a y windows. It 's alm ost old - fashioneG. ´ ( htt p:/ /www.galinsk y.co m/ buildings/pradatok yo/index .htm ) Figure 5.5: Model photos and drawings of the Prada Aoyama Epicenter Source : http ://ar chitett ur a.it/file s/2 0 0 3 1 02 3 /index. ht m The glass skin is not a usual curtain wall s yste m in Prada Ao yama Epicenter. It is a transparent, structur al skin that pla ys an importa nt role in the buil ding design. Steel sections in the facade an d three vertical ste el cor e s support the floor slabs and horizontal tubes brace the structur e . These tubes also provide closed spaces fo r cha ngin g rooms. The grill for the glass skin is a diagonal post and rail f ac ade and the panes ar e wet - sealed with silicone. Th e curvatur e of the gl ass ma kes it more rigid. To pro duce convex - concave glass, the flat glass panes were he ated in a trapez oid shape frame for nea rl y eight hours when it gets read y it was depr essed by aro und 150 mm fro m the center (Schittich 2006). 8 2 Figure 5.6: The grill for the glass skin Source : http ://ar chitet tur a.it/ files/2 0 0 3 1 02 3 /index. ht m Herz og &d e Meur on ex plain the eff ect of t he fac ade out of these curvature shap es of glass as; ³The facade becomes almost a sort of interactive screen. Really low- tech. When the glass bends towards you, you are being observed. You are being pushed back. But when it curves away from you, it invites you in. It actually draws you in physically. The glass is really between the world of Prada, Prada goods, and the observer. And it‘s between the visitor and the city. And the world. It involves every player.” (Herz o g & de Meuron 20 03) Figure 5.7: Prada Aoyama Epicenter Source : Sez egen, A. 8 3 Alternating betwe en the flat, concave and convex glasses, the bubbl ed gl a ss skin of the Prada Ao yama Epicen ter was sepa rated fro m the surrounding residential and comm ercial buildings. The architectu ral value of t he building is hidden in the glass skin. It raises awar eness of building skin design in architectur e and cr e ates a stron g relationship between inte rior and ex terior. The Prada Ao yama Epicenter is an influential ex ampl e designed with alm ost one of the oldes t building materials, glas s, in a totall y new wa y. 5.3 LE &2RBUSIER¶S A33R2A&H T2 'ESIGN 2) BUIL'ING S.IN The brute character of concrete in Le &orbusier’s builGings anG the smoothness of concrete in AnGo’s are Zorth inYestigating to see the relation between the building skin in the ex ampl e of con cr ete as a buildings mat erial. As one of the earl y pioneers of Modern Architectur e, Le Corbusier was born in a Swiss town La Chaux - de - Fonds in 1887. During his architectural edu cation he had a chanc e to work wit h influential architects Au gust e Perr e t (1908 - 1909) and Peter Behr ens (1910). J ust like some other contemporaries of his time, he believed that there was a need for a new beginning in architectu re as a result of the opportunities of the new centur y. He con c en trated on the discover y of new ar chitecture fo r the twentieth centur y bas ed on utilizing tech nolog y anG inGustry. His famous statement: ³The house is a machine for liYing in.´ is a gooG summ ar y of his ideas ( Moffett , et al. 2003 ). In response to his con c entration on the discover y of new archit ecture and admiration of mechanized design, Le Corbusier establisheG ³The )iYe Points´ of architecture in  as the necessary comSonents of architectu ral design. The five points toward a new architectu re were; 1. T he pilotis: Reinforced concret e made possible the design of these sup porting colum ns and it result ed with elevated floors. 2. The roof ga rden: Design of a flat roo f inst ead of inclined ones and utilization of it with different purpos es. 3. The free pla n: Remov ing supportin g wall s form t he interior. Plans were no longe r limited by th e structural wall s owing to reinforc e d concret e technolo g y. 8 4 4. The elon gated windo w: Horizontal windows to get more natur al light as a result of the developm ents in th e structural s yst em. 5. The free fac ade: The structural support elements set back from the facad e to free facad e from its structur al function. These five points were considered in most of his projects until 1950s t o creat e a new aesthetic (Moos 2008). Figure 5.8: Le Corbusier - cinq pointes d'une Architecture Nouvelle Source : http :// www. sbi. dk/ar kite kt ur /b er ed ygtighed /a r kite ktur - o g - b er ed yg tighed - ar tikelsa mling/d e - signed - ec o lo g y/ Accordin g to Le Corbusier, the window is one of the most important elements of a builGing. In ³ToZarGs a neZ architecture´ he focuseG on the horizontal ZinGoZ on the building skin. The window can be designed as a long, uninterrupt ed, ribbon in order to take light inside more ef ficientl y and consequ entiall y spatial ex perienc e of the interior gets stron ger. Continuous windows on the facade became po pular on the non - structural skin of his buildin gs. The freel y - design ed fac ade, unconst r ained b y load - bea ring considerations, consists of a thin skin of wall and window. As a result of this, architects are free to d esign th ese non - supporting wall s as a building skin. 5.3.1 Concrete as a building skin iQ LH &RUEXVLHU¶V DUFKLWHFWXUH Be ginning in the earl y t wentieth centur y, ar chitects have used concr ete and reinforc ed concret e to take advanta ge of the sculpt ural possibilities of this material. Other than its structural opportunities, concr ete becam e an i nnovative building material in architectu ral design with its surface and Le Cor busier was one of the architects who incorporated con cr ete as a skin in his design. B y harnessing the pote ntials of new 8 5 materials, notabl y reinfo rced conc rete, Le Corbu sier aime d to creat e a modern living space with his architectu ral principles. Pro gr ess in technolog y provides a revolution in the histor y of the fac ade with the aid of reinfor ce d conc rete and he was one of the most important architects who demons trated the advanta g es o f conc rete in building design. &oncrete became an imSortant Soint for Le &orbusier’s architectural success. His fiYe points became possible as a result of con cr ete tec hnolog y. Reinfor ced con crete provides the support, it makes the structurall y homo ge no us flat roof possible and its structural capa cit y trans forms the chara cter of the facad e. The possibilities of concret e as a building material open ed n ew horizons to architec ts (Moos 2009). Figure 5.9: Concrete skin of Ronchamp Chapel Source : http ://figur e - gr o u nd . co m/r o ncha mp / The critic Reyner Banham inGicateG as Le &orbusier’s so calleG ³beton brut´ as ³Le Corbusier conjured concrete almost as a new material, exploiting its crudities and those of the wooden formwork to produce an architectural surface of a rugged grandeur.” The folloZing section about &arSenter &enter a reSresentatiYe of Le &orbusier’s ³beton brut´ architecture Zill stuGy the builGing as a case stuGy to inYestigate concrete as a building skin. 5.3.2 Case Study- Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts &arSenter &enter may be consiGereG to be one of the strong e[amSles of Le &orbusier’s ideas. The first and onl y project by Le Corbusier in the United States was the Carpenter 8 6 C ente r fo r the Visual Arts, located at Harvard University campus in Cambridge. Th e site was sur rounded b y Neo - G eor gian buildings of unn atural brick and Le Corbusier designed a radical raw concret e building in se rted betwe en those buildings (Whiffen 1983). Curtis (1994, p.216) summ arized the cente r with these words; “At the heart is a cubic volume from which curved studios pull away from one another on the diagonal. The whole is cut through by an S- shaped ramp which rises from one street and descends towards the other... The layers and levels swing out and back from the grid of concrete pilotis within, making the most of cantilevering to create interpenetrations of exterior and interior, as well as a sequence of spatial events linked by the promenade architecture of the ramp.” Figure 5.10: General view of Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts Source : http :// www. flic kr . co m/p ho to s/sco tt no r s wo r t h y/3 3 9 10 2 6 17 4 /in/p ho to str ea m/ Carpenter Cente r has a cast in place concr ete skin and reinforc ed conc ret e structure. It uses concr ete as an ad ap table building material t o various forms with its natural clarit y for structur al purposes and the skin. The center links interior and ex terior spaces b y th e ex terior ramp which passes through the center of t he building. Horizontal floor plates of the Carpenter C enter are clearl y visible on the fac ade (Borden 2010). 8 7 Figure 5.11: The facade of the Carpenter Center Source : http :// www. o o bj ec t.c o m/1 8 - b r utalist - b uildings/car p enter - ce n ter - harvard / 7 9 5 4 / Although the building has a concr ete skin, the re are some openin gs on the skin for specific fun ctions. Ther e ar e four main t ypes of openin gs on the skin: full floor to ceiling glazing, brises - so leil which was related to the simple patt erned co ncrete wall s, ondulatories which wer e the vertical mul lions between strips of g lass and aerat eurs which were vertical pivoting doors. The composition of these four t yp e s of openings forms the renewed facad e s ystem of Le corbusier from the 1920s. With the new free facad e s ystem he aimed to design each elem ent serving and embo d ying spe cific function (Curtis 1994). Figure 5.12: Carpenter Center facade drawing Source : http :// www. gr ea tb uildings. co m/b uildings/Car p en ter _ Center . ht ml 8 8 Figure 5.13: Exterior view of the center and the exposed concrete surface Source : http :// www. flic kriver.co m/p ho to s/sco tt no r s wo r t h y/3 3 9 0 2 10 4 97 / Le Co rbusier found the beaut y in natural creation of concret e by the formw ork and used it raw, not treated, even with the marks and mistakes. Rather than designing an applied skin, he used concr ete in its corpor eal fo rm. He thought that th e y would be the part o f the aesthetic char acte ri stics of the building (Ga r giani 20011). Based on th ese thou ghts and principles Le Corbusier designed the Ca rpent er Cente r and its smoo th concret e skin still pla ys an important role in architectur al studies for bringing new visions to innovative concr ete skin design toda y. 5.4 TA'A2 AN'2¶S A33R2A&H T2 'ESIGN 2) BUIL'ING S.IN Ando is a self - educat ed architect. He is influenced by the proje cts and writings of the famous architects, Le C orbusier. Le Corbusier had the first consider able influence on him, besides traditional and modern buildings of Europe, Africa, and th e US that he visited. The influential Japanese architect, Ando, was influenc ed by Mode rn Architectur e of 20 t h cent ur y. His design app roach is a combination of Japa nese cult ur al 8 9 understandin g and persp ective of modernism in Europe. His st atement in a writing entitleG µHow to Deal with the Hopelessly Stagnant State of (Contemporary) Modern Architecture’ clearly e[Slains TaGao AnGo’s architectural Gesign aSSroach. He states that; ³I Zant to reaGoSt moGernism Zhich has suSSoseGly been GeaG anG thrust it in a new direction. One of th e strate gies I seek is to personalize modernism with the simple but Sotent aesthetic consciousness uniTue to -aSan.´ (Ando 1989 , p.21 ) He ne ver reje cts forma l aspects of modern ar chitecture, but believes that modern architectu re do es not ta ke into consider ation the cult ural dimension, and does not concentr ate on the spiritual featur es of humanit y. He absorbs what exists on the land and uses th at knowled ge along with the contempo rar y thinking to interp ret what he sees. AnGo may be calleG an architect of the ³Zalls´. He GesigneG many sSaces Zith his ex perimental use of ex posed conc rete and lar ge, powerful wall s in his buildings which alwa ys pla yed an import ant role in this process. Wall regulates movemen t in space; it acts as a guiGe a commanGer a GiYiGer anG brings orGer to SeoSle’s liYes. He e[Slains what wall s m ean to him with his statement; ³At times Zalls manifest a SoZer that borders on the violent. The y have the powe r to divide spa ce, tr ansfigur e plac e, and creat e new domains. Wall s are the most basic ele ments of architectur e, bu t the y can also be the most enriching. ´ ( htt p:/ /www.pritz ke r prize.com/ 1995/bio ) . Explaining the ³Zalls´ of TaGao AnGo Masao )uruyama in his booN ³TaGao AnGo´ states that; “Ando’s walls maintain a physicality which defy metaphor. Minimalist, they abjure sentimentality. His free standing walls function like the planes of conceptual paintings, eliminating surface illusion, reducing the world to its essence. Beyond its visual beauty, Ando’s architecture has the intensity of its naked materials.´ )uruyama 2 006 , p. 13 ). The loaG bearing structure anG the ³Zalls´ of And o are the same elem ent in man y of his projects. The load bearing fun ction is hidden in the concr ete building skin. 9 0 Figure 5.14: Exposed concrete walls in Church of the Water in Yufutsu and Chichu Art Museum Source : http ://fr a n kigoo d win.co m/2 0 0 9 /0 7 /2 6 /highl y - ille gal - ipho ne - s ho ts - o f - c hic hu - ar t - mu seu m - nao shima /img_ 0 3 5 1 1 / Besides the use of wall element, Ando most l y designe d pur e and simple spaces with gave great importance t o details. Harmon y with nature and manipulation of light and pure usa ge of mate rials are the most important points of his design appro ach. Ceilings slightl y deta ched from the wall , the ribs on the facad e to take the light into the space thoroughl y, usa ge of ex posed concr ete even the holes of mol d are visible; all of these details can be encount er ed in his buildings. He gave more importance to the spatial organization of a building and this is the reason wh y he pa ys more att ention to details. He aims to design a sp ace that does not isol at e people form nature an d a skin th at comm unicates with the nature. This skin is design ed to touch human s ense s an d remind them about the presence of nature. The skin that is used in his architecture repr esents most l y the s epar ation between private and public. He also aimed to get the light into the space with the design of open and closed sur fac es on the building ski n acc ording to th e contex t. Skin of his buildings is designed as a compl ete glass skin, conc rete skin with glass used as thin narrow strips or compl etel y mas sive concr ete skin with glass holes on it. Although each building skin is design ed compl etel y diffe r ent from each other, there is alwa ys an interaction with sunlight through the skin. It is his incursion that one can actuall y live in harmon y, close contact with nature throu gh the voids in the skin. In fluenc ed b y Japanes e tr aditional architecture bas ed o n these conditions, he made this a reason to have a ver y high degr ee of conn ection between the outside and inside in his projects. The primal po wer of Tad ao Ando derives from his sublime us e of concr ete. 9 1 His work, primarily in reinforc ed conc rete, de fines spaces in a unique way that all ows const antl y ch an gin g patt e rns of light and wind in all of his structures. 5.4.1 Concrete as a building skin LQ TDGDR AQGR¶V DUFKLWHFWXUH Ando considers auth en tic materials such as ex posed concrete n ec es sar y for th e cr yst allization of architecture in his designs. His interest in authentic materials and their pure and brutal use see m to be the result of his attention to Modern architecture (Schitti ch 2006). Ando himself insists that he is less interested in ex pressing the natur e of the material than using it to creat e architectura l space. Man y of his buildings ar e not entirel y m ade of horizontal and vertical plan e; rather th e y ar e sligh tl y curves or undulated within the individual framework of panels producing a sophisticat ed liveliness on the con cret e surf aces throu gh the pl a y of sh adow and light. In his use of concret e, the shut terin g is used to provide tex ture to the finished building which also suSSorts the concrete Zhile it is setting. AnGo’s Zalls are maGe from e[Tuisitel y smoo th poured in conc rete and his success of using con cre te is not in its mixture bu t it is hidden in the close supervision he provides during const ruction and in the manua l skills of his workmen. He ex plains his concret e design as; “The way I employ concrete, it lacks sculpturesque solidity and weight. It serves to produce light, homogeneous surfaces. I treat concrete as a cool, inorganic material with a concealed background of strength. My intent is not to express the nature of the material itself, but to employ it to establish the single intent of the space.” (Ando 2000, p.51 ). AnGo’s builGing sNin emSloys a limiteG range of materials anG e[Sresses their te[tures. His powerful and he avy ex posed con cret e skin gains its chara cter by his care ful att e ntion to materials. It ex presses an inner stren gth and his design convictions. Initiall y, the architectur al conc epts that seemed to inspire world - wide followe rs were gen erall y found in his large scale projects that refl ected tot al l y smoo th surfa ces divided rigo rousl y accordin g to the grid of t he framework panels and wer e per forat ed b y a uniform patt ern of true anG sometimes ³feigneG´ tie holes. HoZeYer in Sarallel Zith AnGo’s ZorN other diverse prota gonists are ex perimenting with th e material and looking for spe cific contemporar y fo rms of new ex pression. As part of a new consciousness about this 9 2 material, con cr ete is incr easingl y featured in the full ran ge of its visua l for ms (Schittich 2006). 5.4.2 Case Study - Church of the Light Church of the Light is a project of Tadao Ando, built in a residential district in Ibar aki - shi, Osaka - fu . Th e cha pel was const ructed in between 1987 - 1989.T e n ye ars aft er chaSel’s construction SunGay School aGGition Zas built in . TaGao AnGo is NnoZn as an ar chitect that imp ortantl y considers environ mental factors in his designs. J ust like all the other projects of Ando, his design conc ept was shaped and oriented accordin g to the surrounGing enYironment. The other Gominant feature of his architecture ³use of light´ is an imSortant design con cept of the Chur c h of the Light. Figure 5.15: Site plan of the Church of the Light Source : http :// www. scribd.co m/d o c/2 4 2 8 50 7 2 /T ad ao - And o - C h ur ch - o f - Light - Ar c hitect ur a l - Anal ysis The Church of th e Light was distinguish ed b y a clear composition of rect an gular volum es of three cub es crosseG by a Zall at an angle of ƒ. The free- stan ding diagonal wall divides the main space into the chap el an d a vestibule. The chap el is a 6x 6x 18 concret e box consisting of the basic const ructional elements; soil, wall s, ceiling and openings fo r light. The project is an ex ampl e of how to reach a strong design con cept with less, to create a ric h space. 9 3 Figure 5.16: Interior and exterior view of Church of the Light Source : http ://figur e - gr o u nd . co m/ch ur ch_ light/ The most important detail about the Church of t he Light is hidden in the design of its skin and the use of light. Both light and darkness, a contrast between light and shadow constituted the main design theme (Fu ru yama 20 06). To make these conc epts real, he focuses on the skin and its material. The space is primarily defined b y the concret e volum e. The ex posed reinfor ced concret e skin of the ch a pel defines the spa ce. The wall is the load bearing element. Th ere is a crucifo rm cut tha t ex tends verticall y from ground floor to ceiling and horizontally from wall to wall in th e con cret e skin. It is aligned pe rfe ctl y with the joints in the concrete. As it is clear in the site plan of the Church of the Light, the chaSel’s cross cut facaGe Zas orienteG toZarGs south- east to benefit from natural light in maximum. When the light enters f rom the cross cut in the con crete wall it creat es an eff ect of an illuminated cross inside and this effect creat es a division between the spiritual and the secul ar. 9 4 Figure 5.17: The cross cut in the exposed concrete skin Source : Sez egen, A. Ando has alwa ys been in search of a rich and diverse space in his designs. In contr ast to the architects that use ex pensive materials to design rich spa ces, he tried t o achieve this goal with a basic building mat erial m ostl y conc re te and glass and natur al elements such as water and light. He uses materials as a connecting tool between natur e and human. The main element defining sp ace in the Church of the Light is th e light but it does not creat e this effect b y itse lf. Th e natur al light gives this impression by th e cut on the ex posed concr ete wall . The wa y con cret e is po ured and fo rmed gives the con crete a luminous qualit y whe n ex posed to natural light. Ex posed concrete is a suitable material that gives the intended impact for Ando with its pure char acte r. According to Masao Furu yam a, the reason wh y he most l y uses concr ete in his design is state d in his book Tadao Ando (2006 ) ; “Ando is critical of the present tendency to eliminate materiality in architecture and to use characterless, artificial materials in the name of economic rationalism. He always uses natural materials for parts of the building with which people come into physical contact. He believes that materials of substance such as wood, stone and concrete are important for architecture, and that they enable us to sense the building directly through our bodies.” (Furu yama 2006) 9 5 Figure 5.18: Openings on the exposed concrete skin Source : Sez egen, A. The usa ge of conc rete as a simple building mate rial supports the dual idea of the spac e as light/ da rk, solid/void. Ex posed concret e structu re removes an y tr aditional motifs and helps Tadao Ando to create his own aesthetic. Figure 5.19: Top view drawings of the chapel Source : http :// www. mo m a. o r g/co llection/o b j ec t.p hp? o bj ec t_id=3 4 0 Besides an ex truded cro ss from the east facing facad e, the church is compos ed of a concret e shel l. Other th a n the entr anc e openin g on the free - standing con cr ete wall , the onl y openin g is on the sout h - west fac ade which looks towards the court yard and takes 9 6 the refle cted natural ligh t inside. The solid concrete surfa ce adds to the darkness of the churc h b y creating a mor e humbl e, meditative pla ce of wo rship. Figure 5.20: Section drawing of the chapel Source : http :// www - b cf. usc. ed u/~ kco le ma n/P r ec ed ents/ AL L %2 0 P DFs/And o _ Ch ur ch Of Light.p d f Figure 5.21: Physical model photos of the Church of the Light Source : http :// www. d esignb o o m. co m/co nte mp o r ar y/tad ao _ and o . ht ml The box ed - shape, ex posed conc rete building is ad mired b y the people with its power of ex hibiting the sensuous qualities of the material and introducing its effe ctive pla y with natural light. This proje ct is a good ex ampl e of an eff ec tive design of a concr ete building skin. Its innovative design shows how building skin can be on e of the most important element of a building that refl ects the design con cept. 9 7 6. EVALUATION AND CONCLUSION Ever y building is first detected b y its ex te rnal form, which historicall y, was insepara ble from the structure. Architectural m ovements have red efined building skin throughout histor y which is being reinterpr e ted at an ever rapid pace with digital technolog y. Considering the scope and cur rent ch aract eristics of building skin, it was relevant to fo cus this stud y on the art of const r uction, architectu ral tect onics, and building skin in regard t o theor y, histor y, and its contemporar y role in architectural practice. Anal ysis of the tectonic char acter o f a building is to understand the role of the building elements within the organization of space and its symbolism in relation to the structural s ystem. When drawing att ention to the relationship between tectonics anG sSace B|tticher belieYeG that artistic s ym bolism in arch t ecture was tied to functional technological anG material innoYations. SemSer’s theory GefineG architectu re throu gh the building skin as an activity of co nstruction fo ll owed b y technological developm e nts with changin g mate rials and te chnical featur es in its era. :hen he GefineG ³the four elements of architecture´ he consiGereG the construction s ystem with building m aterials and emphasized the importance of s ym bolism in architectu re. On the oth er hand, Kenn eth Fram pton noted the import a nce of the structural s ystem as an inseparabl e part of the sp ac e in defining te ctonics. He thought that without structure there cannot be a spac e, so in order to understand th e essenc e of architecture he also emphasized on the symbolism. )ramSton’s ³tectonics´ notion SreYiously GefineG constitutes a secure basis for understandin g architectu re. His writings on criticism and anal ysis of twentieth centur y architecture have influenc ed man y ar chitects. Accordin g to Frampt on, composition of different architect ur al elements forming structur e has a significant s ymbolic valu e. He described the rep resent ational potential of th e const ruction technique while not reje cted the desc riptions of t heir st ylistic features b y historians. He clarifies that the s ym bolic value of Ancient Greek Templ es or Roman buildings is hidden in the use of building materials; by the qualit y of the joints and details, 9 8 thereb y cr eating the stru ctural s yst em. The comp osition of structural and s ymbolic chara cteristic and their essence refl ect th e tectonic ch ara cter of a building. In othe r words, Fr ampt on gave importance to the repres e ntational potential of the structure. EYaluating the iGeas of tectonics reYealeG that: B|tticher aGYocateG the Gominant role of the structural ch ara cteristics in the creation of the form; Semper be lieved that structure as a skin ex presses s ymbolism in architecture; and Fr ampt on can be seen as a comm on base fo r these three theorists. RereaGing of the SemSer’s influential stuGies on the builGing in the history of arc hitectu re toda y, differ ent architects have been suggesting their ideas on the topic in the contex t of contemp orar y architecture. As Jonathan Hill stated that: ³In Gefining the first ar chitectural act to be the enclosur e and t he gene ration of domestic spac e b y surfac es of little substance ± lines woven into fabric ± Semper doubl y ties architecture to the immaterial. ´ Another important point through these ideas he was focused on the skin and art of sSace. SemSer’s concentration on the theory of Gressing in the middle of the nineteenth centu r y provided basis for sh aping the contempor ar y buil ding skin. SemSer’s interest on the enclosure anG traGitional builGing materials GeSicts the importance of building skin in architecture, as well as the dominant role of bu ilding materials in building skin design. Essentiall y me ntioned by Fr ampt on, tectonics as a contemporar y and controversial issue and is closel y relat ed to the building materials and how the y are const ru cted. Building materials are necessa r y in the creati on of a protected spac e an d, as the y evolved with time, their relationship created building s that had sh aped ar chitectural histor y. Architecture co mes to life through building materials. Building materials were restrict ed to local resour ces be fore ef ficien t transportation was available. However, with the Ind ustrial Revolution new building mate rials em er ged and const ruction methods opened new ho rizons for architects. New m ate rials, their application and reinterp r eting existing ones are closel y relat ed to the evolution of building skin design. 9 9 Design of building skin has pla yed an important role in architecture from primitive times to contemporar y period. Building skin provides protection from outer elements, creates privacy and defines boundar y around person al propert y ther efor e becomes an ess ential par t of a building. Because the s ymbolic role and th e meanin g of the skin is an essential topic of the ar chitectu re toda y, cult ur al repr es entation of building skin besides its ph ysical functions is also important. Building skin has developed and chan ged in parall el to the developm ent of mankind with technolog y. While the need for enclo sed and sheltered spa ces was provided by natural elements in primitive times, effect s of technolo g y and mate rial usa ge have tak en the notion of building skin to a different level of meaning with the definition of the building skin as a ³Zall´. BuilGing sNin Gesign in eYery sense has been in a constant change throughout histor y. As a boundar y defining building element, the wall ha s been identified differ entl y under the influenc e of ever - chan gin g architectu ral movements. Previousl y, wall s were design ed as thin, enclosing, tex tile elements. Late r, with the use of stone and brick as primar y building skin materials, the wall increased in thickness to create more protective shelters . Design of building skin was restricted to local building materials and const ru ction techniques. These materials were not subj ect to an y special surf ace treatm en t. New building m aterials emer ged due to the I ndust rial Revolution all owed for increasin gl y innovative building skin designs. Gla ss and steel togethe r wo rked wonde rs b y making the tr an sparent building skin possible ± therefor e bringing more light into enclosed spac es . The solid and void rel ationship o f the skin, its developm ent in the concept of stru cture, and its ex pressionist behavior constitute some important factors to be consider ed when designing a mo re compl ex building skin. In this contex t, investigating the developm ent of the building materia ls is important in designing bett er skin. Building mate rials infl uence the design of building skin where the corpor eal existence of architectural ex pression becomes real. Availability 1 0 0 of the building mate rial s in desired color, patt e rn, and size and the wi llingness to discover new const ruction methods can le ad creativity in the design of the skin. As Mies van der Rohe, an ar chitect who trul y underst ood the essenc e of mate rial, states: “What would concrete be, what steel without plate glass? The ability of both to transform space would be limited, even lost altogether; it would remain only a vague promise. Only a glass skin and glass walls can reveal the simple structural form of the skeletal frame and ensure its architectonic possibilities … These are truly architectural elements forming the basis for a new art of building. They permit us a degree of freedom in the creation of space that we will no longer deny ourselves. Only now can we give shape to space, open it, and link it to the landscape. It now becomes clear once more just what walls and openings are, and floors and ceilings. Simplicity of construction, clarity of tectonic means, and purity of materials have about them the glow of pristine beauty.” Investigating the materials used in building skin design is an ex tensive field of stud y. It is essential to underst and the m aterial properties, design potential, and integr ation into the builGing sNin’s Gesign. These aYailable builGing materials anG construction methods revolutionized the solid and void relation ships on building skin. Among various building materials, glass and co ncrete have been on e of the most influential building skin materials throughout histor y espe ciall y du ring twentieth centur y and onwa rds. Any chan ge in the structure and appli cation of these materials has rapidl y refle cted in the building skin design. Glass consolidated its position as a leading building skin ma terial afte r the Indust rial Revolution with its spreading us e by man y ar chitects. Although man y new building materials are manufa ctur ed, glass ± as one of the oldest building material ± still retains its importance. Glass s ymbolizes contemporar y building skin. In contr ast to the transp arenc y of glass, concr ete has been developed as a le adin g building material. The solid, cold material properties that have often described concret e, have been overcome throu gh inn ovative design and technolo g y. Innovations in technolog y have made the fluid forms of concr ete more accessible 1 0 1 than ever befo re. J ust like glass mate rial, concr ete is an up to date building skin material. The relationship betwee n building materials and architectur al design is important in the design of building skin as it is important for t he other elements of the building. To ex plain it clearl y, Mies quoted that; ³Th us each material has its specific chara cteristics which we must understand if we want to use it. This is no less true of steel and concr ete. We must remember th at everything depends on how we us e the material not on the material itself.´ AccorGing to him, rather than the mat e rial itself the wa y how the mat erial s are used is mor e important. His building skin design for the Sea gram Building depicts his understandin g of gl ass as a material th at led him to move his design co ncept to the upper level. His master work shows a deep unde rstanding of the cha racte r of mate rial that inspired him in a creative wa y. A contemp orar y of Mies, Le Corbu sier also took advantage of the use of materials. He used co ncrete which is a versatile material; he f ocused on its raw chara cter in his building skin design. Accordin g to Le Corbusier, investigating the potential of materials brought new ideas into design. His use of materials meets the art of const ru ction in his designs, as it is cle ar fro m his statement s : “You employ stone, wood and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces. That is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good, I am happy and I say: "This is beautiful." That is Architecture. Art enters in.” (Corbusier, 1927). Concrete was an influential material for Le Corb usier both with the performance of its structural features and aesthetics. Also, well known for his contemporar y conc rete aesthetic, is Tado Ando , who differentiates himself clearly from Le &orbusier’s aesthetic when he states, “What I’m attempting to express through concrete is not like Le Corbusier’s ruggedness but something more subtle.” His material use was e[SlaineG more clearly in )uruyams’s booN ³TaGao AnGo The Geometr y of Human SSace´ in  e[Slaining: 1 0 2 “Beyond its beauty, Ando’s architecture has the intensity of its naked materials…The touchstone for Ando’s grasp of concrete lies in the rhythms of daily life, founded on Japan’s unique aesthetics. From his earliest architectural works, Ando has cherished materials with a unique intensity deeply tied to his childhood memories. Ando may be a master of poured concrete, but relies on natural materials for points that a human being may touch…God may well be in the details, but in Ando’s architecture memories are in details.” (Fur u yam a 2006). Just like Tadao Ando, Herz og & de Meuron are important architects with their innovative material use in their building skin design. Th e y tr y to ex perienc e all kinds of building materi als to increas e the role of the building materials in building skin design. The y tr y to ben efit from the charact eristics of the materials as much as possible and with the intention to create and ex perience th e poetic qualities of building materials. Th e ro le building mate rials pla y in the architectural design of Herz og & de Meuron is precisel y summarized in these words that; “Their interest in surface and material, opacity and transparency and the function and variability of images makes architecture speak—not just in quotations and typologies, but by continually redefining raw materials. Their buildings seem to exist simply to present those mysterious and beautiful moments when material is transformed into meaning".” ( http : / / www . lars - mueller - publishers . com / en / herz og - and - de - meuron - natur geschichte - 1 ) Herzog Ge Meuron’s aSSroach to builGing sNin Gesign Gemonstrates the imSact that glass can have as a building skin material. Both gl ass and con cr ete have, respectivel y, constituted a pr imar y role in the influential designs of Mies van der Rohe and Herz o g &d e Meuron, and Le Corbusier and Tad ao Ando. Their works highlight ed in this thesis ± Seagram Building, Prada Ao yama Epicent er, Carpenter Center for Visual Arts and Church of the Light ± demons trate the breadth of architectu ral ex pression that can be rea ched b y the se materials. Contemporar y architectu re is becoming the architecture of images. Becau se skin of the building is on e of the most important building elements to perc eive the ima ge from the outside, design of the skin keeps its importance up to date. Th e meaning of the building skin has redefined several times as a result of the historical and 1 0 3 theoretical investigations . Continuous skin which exists in the natural environment, the skin as a wall , tru e skin that is related to the building whe re roof and wall are one continuous element without visible transition are some of its definitions. In this contex t, the influential potential of the design of the building skin is a notion that shoul d be dealt with in architectur e. The developm ents in the material and const ruction technolo g y are le ading innovative design of the building skin. Although the art of const ru ction have been consider ed as a separ ate el ement of design, it is actuall y on e of the most leading design factors in architectur e. The design and the construction cannot be seSarateG in architecture. )rom the times of 9itruYius’s Gefinition of art of construction to the stuGies of )ramSton’s tectonics the notion of architectu ral tectonics with the interpretation of traditional and ne w building materials keeps its impor tance toda y to be investigated. An imSortant aSSroach in toGay’s architecture is Gesigning builGing sNin as an important comm unication tool between interior and e x terior space and benefiting from the w ide ran ge of available b uilding mate rials is one of th e most important design tool s to achieve this approach. New mate rial usa ge has an influen ce on th e form of th e building sk in. U se of transp arent building materials on the skin of the building aims to refle ct the atm osphere of the living spa ce to the people ou tside . A s a result of this approa ch the interior life beco mes a part of the su rrounding environment with the aid of the building skin . D iffer ent use of building m aterials with progressive techniq ues and well considered details incr ease cr eativity in the design of the building skin it is reall y necess ar y to give importanc e to the resear ch of building materials. Within the framewo rk of this resear ch , the re are som e finding that requires att ention in the ex ampl e of concrete and glass. B uilding skin that is designed with the use of transpar e nt building materials, tra nsforming into opaque s urfac es and opaque surf ac es tend to transform into transpa r ent skins. T he produ ction of more translucent glass material and light transm itting con cret e can be ex ampl e in this contex t. Environmental issues such as; da y lighting, ener g y efficienc y are among the concerns of architects in the design of building skin toda y. In this contex t, this stud y covers an ex tensive investigation on th e essenc e of building materials, th e tectonic 1 0 4 culture as a basis for the Gesign of builGing sNin case stuGies of architect’s innovative works which will constitute an impo rtant resour ce fo r practicing a rchi tects with a conscious concern for te ctonics and building materials. 1 0 5 REFERENCES Books And o, T., 1989. The Yale Studio & Current Works . New York: Rizzoli Inte r national Publications. Ando, T., 2000. Ando writing in 198 6. Concrete Regionalism (4x4 series). London: Tham es & Hudson. Ball ant yne, A., 2002. What is Architecture? , Ox on: R outl edge. Bell , V. B. & Rand, P., 2006. Materials for Architectural Design . London: Lau ren ce King Publishing. Bert elli, P., 2003. Herzog & De Meuron: Prada Aoyama Tokyo . G. Cel an t & Prada M. (Eds.). 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